An Evaluation of Cytological Grading System in View of Breast Carcinoma and Histological Patterns layers that renew continuously throughout life time (Mescher 2010). Malignant tumors derived from glandular epithelial tissues are the most common tumor in adulthood. They have characteristics of cancer in which normal cells divide without stopping and continues to spread into other tissues around. One common example is adenocarcinoma, which originates from epithelial tissues that have glandular characteristics. This article presents a comparative analysis of breast carcinomas using cytological grading system (Robinson’s method) and histological grading system (Nottingham modification of Scarff-Bloom-Richardson histological grading). Before …show more content…
There are two main categories of breast cancer, carcinomas and sarcomas. They have different origin, carcinomas arise from epithelial lining of the duct which carries milk from breast lobules to nipple. They are the most common type of human breast cancer and they can spread easily to surrounding tissues though blood and lymph. Whereas, sarcomas is the rare type of breast cancer and it originate from connective tissues and fatty substances around the ducts and lymphatic vessels called stroma Management of these two types of breast cancer relies on early diagnosis. In clinical settings physicians use cancer grading method during breast cancer diagnosis, which allows them to choose the right treatment plan for their patients. In general, there are three levels of grading, grade-I cancer cells resemble normal cell growth and have steady growth speed, grade-2 cancer cells appear to be different from normal cells and they divide faster than normal cells and grade-3 cancer cells identifies the fastest growing tumors that look completely different from the normal cells (Veer 2002). Thus, cancer with highest grading appears aggressive and divides more than lower grade cancer cells. Now we know the three level of breast cancer, let’s see different grading …show more content…
Essentially, cytological grading system comes out as viable option in providing important information used by oncologist to develop an effective plan for managing interventions. In their study, Pandey et al (2014) applied several criteria to analyze breast carcinoma using cytological grading system. The study took place in the department of pathology and thirty cases of breast cancer tissue sample from female patients between the age of forty and forty nine. They are confirmed breast cancer tissues cases for ductal carcinoma. The Robinson grading method is used during their study of cytological grading system and six parameters were used to analyze the grading of breast cancer into grade-1 all the way to grade-3 ( Pandey et al. 2014), and this six parameters are cell dissociation, nuclear size, cell uniformity, nucleoli, nuclear margin and chromatin pattern (Table -1). Each of the six criteria were given the score of 1 through 3 and later the grade for each sample was calculated by adding together for each category. Thus, the final score could range from 6 for grade I cancer up to 18 for aggressive cancer type grade- 2 and 3 (Pandey et
Although, it is easy to believe that all cells in a tumor are neoplastic, evidence suggests otherwise. There are three characteristics that are present in all KS cells whether they are neoplastic or not. The first is absence of a histologically distinguishable neoplastic cell. The second is the lack of usual chromosomal abnormalities. The last is a combination of three features angiogenesis, inflammation, and proliferation.
The Braden Scale is a clinically valued tool that is used to predict pressure ulcers. The scale is broken down into six sub-scales; these subscales determine the risk factors associated with skin break down. Multiple aspects of a patients condition are examined, (sensory perception, moisture, activity, mobility, nutrition, friction and shear), to limit the patients susceptibility for skin break down. Since pressure ulcers are a financial burden and a cause for patient discomfort and possible infection, predicting and assessing risk has enormous benefit and significance.
The pancreas can be divided into two sections when studying the histology. The pancreas has exocrine and endocrine functions, each with unique cell types. The exocrine pancreas serves to secrete digestive enzymes into the duodenum. Some of the specific enzymes and secreted substances are Proteases, lipase, amylase, bicarbonate, and water (Bowen, “Exocrine Secretions”). These enzymes are used to break down protein, fat, and carbohydrates respectively. The bicarbonate simply act as an acid buffer to prevent damage of the small intestine as the stomach acid must be neutralized. The enzymes are created in acinar cells and the bicarbonate is synthesized in epithelial cells surrounding pancreatic ducts (Bowen “Exocrine
Over the past decade breast cancer has become one of the most predominant diseases in the United States. Breast cancer starts out as a malignant tumor in the tissues of the breast which is formed from the uncontrolled growth of abnormal breast cells. Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women, but it can also appear in men. (Stephan, 2010)
Breast cancer is most commonly diagnosed in Stage I and Stage II, where the size of the tumor is less than five centimeters in diameter. In these situations, surgery is often the second treatment option after chemotherapy and radiation therapy, both of which are used to shrink the tumor to a manageable size first. If the patient chooses to, the ...
Tang, S. -., Parker, H., Winterbottom, L., Hassell, K., Ellis, I. O., Morgan, D. A. L., & Cheung, K. L. (2011). Early primary breast cancer in the elderly - pattern of presentation and treatment. Surgical Oncology, 20(1), 7-12. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.suronc.2009.07.004
Cancer staging “…describes the severity of a person’s cancer based on the size and/or extent (reach) of the original (primary) tumor and whether or not cancer has spread in the body.” Staging allows doctors and other medical professionals to accurately understand how far along the patient is in the illness and what treatment, medication, and c...
Stage IIB can also be detected in three ways. If there is a tumor between two and five centimeters present with small groups of breast cancer cells sizes varying between .2 millimeters and 2 millimeters found in the lymph nodes. The second way that IIB can be found is if there is a tumor of those same dimensions found, but this time present with cancer cells that have spread to two to three axillary lymph nodes or to lymph nodes near the breastbone. The last way can be described as a tumor larger than five centimeters but has not spread to the axillary lymph nodes.
There are many different approaches for management of breast cancer and treatment options that patients may select in collaboration with health care providers. Breast cancer is a complex disease that presents in many different types, with specific biological features unique to each patient. Invasive cancers are classified based on tumor type and histological grade, which is of utmost importance when deciding the course of treatment. Contemporary advances in breast cancer treatments have been made, especially in chemotherapy, hormone and biological therapies. Treatment can be a combination of local treatments, systemic treatments, and in some cases, new targeted treatments (Watts, 2013).
Breast Cancer is defined as “a group of solid tumor malignancies arising in the tissues of the breast” (Sarah Crawford, Richard Alder, 2013) in human and other mammals. It can happen to both men and women. For women, breast cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer death. According to National Cancer Institute, in the United States, the 2014 estimated new cases and deaths of female from breast cancer are 232,670 and 40,000, respectively. For male, it’s 430 deaths out of 2,360 new cases. From these numbers, we can see that women in the U.S. are greatly affected by breast cancer, thus, it’s not difficult to imagine the impact on a worldwide level. Although these numbers look frightening, people can actually survive from breast cancer if it is detected early and treated properly, so it is extremely important for all of us, especially women, to have a better understanding of breast cancer.
Each stage is characterized by an A, B, or C letter, depending on the degree to which the symptoms present themselves. The differences in each stage are as follows: stage 1 is when the cancer is either found in one ovary or both, stage 2 the tumor is found in one or both ovaries and extends to other pelvic structures, stage 3 the cancer has spread beyond the pelvis to the lining of the abdomen or to the lymph nodes and finally in stage 4 the cancer has spread to other organs in the body including the liver or lungs (Ovarian Cancer National Alliance). Cancer is “staged” by taking a sample of the infected tissue surgically and sending it to a lab for examination. Staging is crucial in order for medical professionals to determine which course of treatment would be the most effective for the given patient. If misdiagnosed, an entire area affected by this disease could potentially be missed and left untreated.
There is a student Emma, who has recently graduated from Austin High School, where 90/10 grading system is used; 90% of Emma’s grade is knowledge based with scores such as tests and projects, while her practice work such as homework is worth 10% of her grade. Emma, finds school somewhat easy and since homework was only 10% of her grade, so she often did not bother to do her practice work. Even though she did not do her homework through high school she managed to keep above a 3.00 GPA. When Emma enters college, she is shocked to see that she would have to complete homework, and that it would affect her grade drastically if she didn’t complete her homework. Emma is feeling unprepared and overloaded with work. She is not prepared for college,
A head-to-toe skin assessment includes inspection and palpation of the skin. The nurse must perform a thorough skin history, examination, and document findings. It is vital for nurses to know the basic principle of skin disease and care when caring for patients. A detailed skin assessment and documentation can help the health team in generating the plan of care, and in maintaining patient’s skin integrity.
The Cell, the fundamental structural unit of all living organisms. Some cells are complete organisms, such as the unicellular bacteria and protozoa, others, such as nerve, liver, and muscle cells, are specialized components of multicellular organisms. In another words, without cells we wouldn’t be able to live or function correctly. There are Animal Cells and Plant Cells. In Biology class the other day we studied the Animal Cell. We were split into groups of our own and we each picked a different animal cell slide to observe. My group chose the slide,'; Smeared Frog Blood ';.
Blood and urine based biomarkers used in molecular pathology are only indicative of the average response of the cell population affected with little or no information of the range of response or variability form areas of tissue (Naddler and Langley 2001)