1. Introduction In the present techno-economic era, the energy and environmental crises developed due to huge amount of cellulosic materials disposed as “waste”. Globally, the estimated quantity of the waste generation was 12 billion tons in a year 2002 of which 11 billion tons were industrial wastes and 1.6 billion tons were municipal solid waste. About 90 billion tons solid wastes will expected to be generated annually by the year 2025. Annually, Asia alone generates 4.4 billion tons of solid wastes and municipal solid waste comprises 790 million tons of which about 48 million tons are generated in India. Currently, rapid industrialization and population explosion in India has led to the migration of people from villages to cities, which …show more content…
The economies of most developing countries dictates that materials and resources must be used to their full potential, and this has propagated a culture of reuse, repair and recycling. Municipal solid waste is composed of 40-50% cellulose, 9-12% hemicellulose and 10-15% lignin on a dry weight basis. Recently, cellulose has been in the public eye due to its possible use in the production of useful products. It is the most abundant biological organic compound on earth. It is a linear glucopolymer compound of anhydro-glucose units joined to each other by β-1,4-glucosidic bonds. Microorganism performs their metabolic processes rapidly and with remarkable specificity under ambient conditions, catalyzed by their diverse enzyme mediated reactions. An enzyme alternative to harsh chemical technologies has led to intensively exploration of natural microbial biodiversity to discover enzymes. Cellulases are modular enzyme responsible for the hydrolysis of the β-1, 4 glucosidic bonds in cellulose, synthesized by a diverse range of microorganisms including a varieties of
Catecholase is an enzyme formed by catechol and oxygen used to interlock oxygen at relative settings, and it is present in plants and crustaceans (Sanyal et. al, 2014). For example, in most fruits and vegetables, the bruised or exposed area of the pant becomes brown due to the reaction of catechol becoming oxidized and oxygen becoming reduced by gaining hydrogen to form water, which then creates a chain that is is the structural backbone of dark melanoid pigments (Helms et al., 1998). However, not all fruits and plants darken at the same rate. This leads to question the enzymatic strength of catecholase and how nearby surroundings affect its activity. The catecholase enzyme has an optimal temperature of approximately 40°C (Helms et al., 1998). Anything above that level would denature the tertiary or primary structure of the protein and cause it to be inoperable. At low temperatures, enzymes have a slower catalyzing rate. Enzymes also function under optimal pH level or else they will also denature, so an average quantity of ions, not too high or low, present within a solution could determine the efficiency of an enzyme (Helms et al., 1998). Also, if more enzymes were added to the concentration, the solution would have a more active sites available for substrates and allow the reaction rate to increase if excess substrate is present (Helms et al., 1998). However, if more
Because of its undeniable and scientifically-proven powerful antioxidant properties, catalase enzyme has a wide commercial application. Primarily in combination with the enzyme glucose oxidase, catalase is used as a preserving system in mayonnaise and egg products such as whole eggs or dried egg white, in the preparation of milk and cheese, in the manufacture of baked goods, beverages, textile industry, cosmetic industry (as face mask), and in cleaning agents for contact lenses, for the elimination of the hydrogen peroxide that is present in some products, (Worthington Biochemical Corporation,
Glycoside Hydrolases are classified into 108 families according with the amino acid sequence similarities. One of these families is GH1 (Glycoside Hydrolases 1), this family consists of enzymes with various substrate specificities, and the enzymes are present is bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryota. The 3D structure of 18 of these enzymes had been determined, and although the extent of sequence varies between 17% and 45%, all the enzymes have a common (β/α)8-barrel motif, and two catalytic glutamate residues located at the C-terminal end of β-strands 4 and 7, which may give a clue about the mechanism of these enzymes.
Biomass 9 Ramamurthi, R., Kastury, Satish, & Smith, Wayne H. (2000). BIOENERGY vision for the new millennium. Enfield, NH: Science Publishers.
This is necessary as the vast majority of individuals migrating from rural to urban centers has been steadily increasing with the level of economic growth seen within the past twenty years as mentioned earlier. Unfortunately, this situation has further shown the structural issues and inequalities of cities, as most migrants end up having a poor quality of life living in informal settlements as highlight substantially by Boo. As a means of tackling this, however, the Indian government has turned its focus on investing rural regions, developing the agricultural sector. Specifically, Boo mentions that “the prime minister, Manmohan Singh, had come down from Delhi to express his concern for the farmers’ hardships, and the central government’s determination to relieve it” (p. 138). While this is definitely important funds are not being divided justly. For starters, between rural and urban areas almost all investments are being targeting towards rural regions, which is only addressing issues of inequality in one section of the country. Furthermore, across rural areas inequalities of investment are quite often overlooked. Although, “one of the governments hopes was to stop villagers from abandoning their farms and further inundating cities like Mumbai, but Asha’s relatives knew nothing of these celebrated relief programs” (p. 138). Therefore, even though
A general situation of urbanization trend in developing countries and developed countries is increasing. In 18th Century only 3% of the world total population lived in urban areas but as projected in 2000 this number will increase at above 50% (UN as cited in Elliot, 1999, p. 144). According to UN (as cited in Elliot, 1999, p.144), it is figured that the total urban population in developing countries has increased from approximately 400 millions people in 1950 to approximately 2000 millions people in 2000. At the same time, total urban population in developed countries is double...
Enzymes, such as cellulases, which catalyse the breakdown of cellulose, have been isolated from several different organisms, including fungi. However, the purification of enzyme from these sources is expensive, on the order of $5.50 per gallon of ethanol produced. Genetic engineering or biotechnology has already played a key enabling role in the development of cellulosic biomass conversion technologies by dramatically reducing the cost of cellulase production from about $5.50 per gallon of ethanol to $0.10-15 per gallon of
India, the second highest populated country in the world after China, with 1.27 billion people currently recorded to be living there and equates for 17.31% (India Online Pages 2014) of the world's population, but is still considered a developing country due to it’s poverty and illiteracy rates. As these nations continue to grow at rates that are too fast for resources to remain sustainable, the government’s in these areas wi...
Abstract: Using Ion Exchange Chromatography, cellulase was purified. After purification, it was analyzed using a DNS test. The purified protein did not respond to the DNS the way it was expected to.
By taking a Carbon Dioxide, rich substance and mixing it with a yeast, solution fermentation will occur, and then it could be determined if it is a good energy-producer. In this study glacatose, sucrose, glycine, glucose, and water were used to indicate how fast fermentation occurred. The overall result shows that monosaccharides in particular galactose and glucose were the best energy source for a cell.
The remittances are spent on consumption and little is left for investment. Thus the villagers travel between village and destination repeatedly and are unable to come out of this vicious cycle (Korra 2010). Another argument is that the poorest rarely migrate because a minimum level of material assets is required to make the investment for migration; for travel, purchasing supplies to take to the destination and leaving some money behind for running the household (Deshingkar, Start 2003). Those marginalised i.e. the landless and the SCs, who are accommodated in the non-farm sector, are probably in the lower rungs of the seemingly stratified non-farm labour market as most of the non-farm jobs are associated with significant entry barriers in terms of age, education and gender (Jatav, Sen 2013).
...population distribution designed to reduce the rate of rural-urban migration appears to have had limited success in many developing countries. Policies must be directed at altering the rural economy in order to slow the rate of urban sprawl. Broad land use planning and changing of planning standards and governmental procedures would go a long way to reduce many of the problems that face urban populations in the developing areas, especially Africa. Urbanization can cause a lot of problems for a city or even a country. It can cause cities to become overpopulated which are known as mega-cites, and cause problems with living arrangements and finding a job. Urbanization can also cause health problems. Urbanization is supposed to be good for developing countries on the rise but with this rapid growth in Africa, these problems can become a major concern in the future.
As countries pursue development and industrialization the need to build urban areas become certain. The lack of urban cities will cause people in the rural areas wants to move to the urban areas. Every person wants a standard of living better than where is he now. Therefore the drive to migrate to urban areas becomes obvious. Rural to urban migration leads to a loss of man power in the rural areas to work on the farm lands. It will lead to the declining of agriculture. It also leads to congestion in the urban areas therefore unemployment level will raise because people would fight over limited jobs. Poor housing situation will also increase because people from the rural areas choose to stay in an area near their jobs or livelihood because they can save a lot of money instead of using it for transportation. Informal settlers can cause a dispute with the government regarding with their place. The crime level will also increase it is because people who are desperate to earn money or wanted an easy way to earn money without hard work they choose the path of evil which can be destructive to people’s life and can affect the development of an area.
There are two kinds of factors why rural people seek for urban life. The first one is urban pull factor. They dream for higher wages, better housing and utilities, better school and hospital, more jobs opportunity, and more experience that they can get it all from a living in big cities as they think. The second one is urban push factor. We know that most of rural areas people are farmers. There’,s not much else to do anymore in the village but wait for harvest time and without higher level of education, availability of media, or facilities that they need, they might be stimulated to move to urban areas.
Indian population has a mixture of culture, variety of languages and difference in resources. The difference in occupational structure, literacy level, health status and other socio-economic factors among the states leads to the