Historical Development
Valproic acid has an analogue found in nature in the form of the valerian plant. This chemical was artificially synthesized in 1882 using the chemical in valerian as a reference. The chemical is a liquid at room temperature and was and was for a long time employed as a chemically inert solvent. Application for the drug was discovered as an anticonvulsant and antiepileptic drug in 1962 by the French researcher Pierre Eymard while he was comparing different compound for antisezure properties. Valproic acid was approved as a antiepileptic drug in 1967 and has sense become a very widely used drug in the area epileptic reduction. Other, later discovered application for the drug, include migraine, bipolar disorder, and major depression. Valproic acid may also have a market in HIV, cancer, stem cell research, but current research is being conducted.
Compound’s Mechanism of Action
As a treatment of bipolar disorder, the mechanism of valproic acid is not completely understood, but the mechanism of valproic acid is thought to affect the neurotransmission of gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the brain. The specific mechanism is thought of a GABA neutransmitter inhibitor, which inhibits GABA transaminase and subsequently increases the concentration of GABA. This mechanism is comparable to lithium salts for bipolar disorder.
As an anticonvulsant, valproic acid blocks the voltage sodium and calcium channels, which form the barrier of the cells plasma membrane. The cationic channels act by allowing the ions of chemicals to pass through the semipermiable membrane of the cells and generate subsequent reactions. The goal of any anticonvulsant is the reduction of excess neural particles that rapidly fire during a seizur...
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... Chemical Research in Toxicology 9 (2), 517-526.
Lauri Peura, Kalle Malmioja, Krista Laine, Jukka Leppnen, Mikko Gynther, Antti Isotalo, Jarkko Rautio (2011). Large Amino Acid Transporter 1 (LAT1) Prodrugs of Valproic Acid: New Prodrug Design Ideas for Central Nervous System Delivery. Molecular Pharmaceutics Article ASAP.
Jianxun Li, Daniel L. Norwood. (1990). Mitochondrial Metabolism of Valproic Acid. Biochemistry 30, 388-394.
Nieves C. Comelli, Rosana M. Lobayan, Eduardo A. Castro, Alicia H. Jubert. (2011). Study of the Structural and Electronic Properties of Valproic Acid and New Derivatives Used As Anticonvulsant Agents. The Journal of Physical Chemistry 115 (9), 1686-1700
Ali R. Tabatabaei and, Frank S. Abbott. (1999). Assessing the Mechanism of Metabolism-Dependent Valproic Acid-Induced in Vitro Cytotoxicity. Chemical Research in Toxicology 12 (4), 323-330
Stahl, S. M., & Mignon, L. (2010). Antipsychotics: Treating psychosis, mania and depression (2nd ed.).
According to the documentary, medicine is the most commonly used intervention mechanism to elevate and dull symptoms of bipolar disorder (2016). Of all the medicine used to combat bipolar disorder, lithium, is considered the “gold standard.” It has been shown to be the most effective and consistent and treating symptoms, however, only 30% of patients benefit from using lithium (2016). Other medications can be used, but have varying levels of effectiveness in patients. It often takes years for patients to find the right mixture of medication to help combat symptoms. For some patients with bipolar, medication is useless at fighting symptoms (2016). For example, the video followed Gary who was desperate for treatment and who was thought to be medication resistant. He elected to participate in Electro-convulsive therapy (ETC), which induces remission in 80% of patients and has been known to be rapidly effective for those with bi-polar disorder. For Gary, the treatment was used to apply electric current to the brain. This current changed the way neurons connect to one another in his brain and even stimulated the
Most people know Aspirin as a pill to take when they have a headache or some other ailment. There’s much more to Aspirin than most people know about. This report will explain the chemical properties of Aspirin as well as what the uses are, the history of the chemical, and the discovery of the molecule.
Geddes, J. R., & Miklowitz, D. J. (2013). Treatment of Bipolar Disorder. The Lancet, 381(9878), 1672-1682. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)60857-0
There is progressive vasoconstriction of arterioles until the BP exceeds the upper limit of auto regulation, followed by breakthrough vasodilation, increase in cerebral blood flow, blood-brain barrier dysfunction, and cerebral oedema(Rodriguez-Yanez et al., 2006). Cerebral ischemia results in severely ischemic tissue with failure of electrical activity and ionic pumps (Rodriguez-Yanez et al., 2006) There is increase in the release of the excitatory amino acid glutamate due to electrical failure. (Rodriguez-Yanez et al., 2006) . Glutamate receptors are activated as a result and cause the opening of ion channels that allow potassium ions to leave the cell and sodium and calcium ions to enter. This has a number of physiological effects.
Aspirin contains the substance acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), which can relieve inflammation, fever, pain, and known as a “blood thinner”. Aspirin was not officially trademarked until March 6, 1899 when the Imperial Office of Berlin made it official. It has been used for the last 110 years, but its natural form, salicylic acid has been around for thousands by Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Aspirin is available in over 80 countries and known as the best non-prescription drug. The most common use of aspirin is to cure headaches and use it as a pain reliever, but aspirin is known to prevent heart attack and strokes. It was first proposed in 1940, but wasn’t confirmed until 1970 when doctors would recommend taking aspirin daily [1].
In Gershon, S. and Baron Shopsin (Eds.), Lithium: its Role in Psychiatric Research and Treatment. (pp.83). New York: Plenum. Williams, R.J.P. 1973. The Chemistry and Biochemistry of Lithium.
related amino acids are the dominant form of excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system of
The severe mood fluctuations of bipolar or manic-depressive disorders have been around since the 16-century and affect little more than 2% of the population in both sexes, all races, and all parts of the world (Harmon 3). Researchers think that the cause is genetic, but it is still unknown. The one fact of which we are painfully aware of is that bipolar disorder severely undermines its victims ability to obtain and maintain social and occupational success. Because the symptoms of bipolar disorder are so debilitation, it is crucial that we search for possible treatments and cures.
Hopkins, H.S. and Gelenberg, A.J. (1994). Treatment of Bipolar Disorder: How Far Have We Come? Psychopharmacology Bulletin. 30 (1): 27-38.
Epilepsy, also known as “seizure disorder,” or “seizure attack,” is the fourth most common neurological disorder known to mankind, affecting an estimated 2.3 million adults and 467,711 children in the United States. Unfortunately this disorder is becoming far more common and widespread worldwide. This staggering number of cases of people suffering from Epilepsy also involves an average growth rate of 150,000 new cases each year in the United States alone. Generally, many of the people who develop who are a part of the new are mainly either young children or older adults. Your brain communicates through chemical and electrical signals that are all specialized for specific tasks. However, through the process of communication, chemical messengers, also known as neurotransmitters can suddenly fail, resulting in what is known as a seizure attack. Epilepsy occurs when a few too many brain cells become excited, or activated simultaneously, so that the brain cannot function properly and to it’s highest potential. Epilepsy is characterized when there is an abnormal imbalance in the chemical activity of the brain, leading to a disruption in the electrical activity of the brain. This disruption specifically occurs in the central nervous system (CNS), which is the part of the nervous system that contains the brain and spinal cord. This causes an interruption in communication between presynaptic neurons and postsynaptic neurons; between the axon of one neuron, the message sender and the dendrite of another neuron, the message recipient. Consequently, the effects that epileptic seizures may induce may range anywhere from mild to severe, life-threatening ramifications and complications. There are many different types of seizures associa...
...rain. Glutamate antagonists have been successful in treating various animal models of epilepsy and by effectively protecting against epilepsy brain damage.
...epressant drugs are required to relieve symptoms. Many antidepressants work by raising levels of monoamine neurotransmitters in the synapse. TCA’s, SSRI’s and SNRI’s are equally successful in depressive patients however differ in terms of their side effects. Due to advantages in pharmacological treatment and minimum variation in antidepressant efficiency, the choice of medication available to depression patients remains a choice in accordance to the patient’s characteristics and which treatment is deemed safe with less severe side effects. Antidepressants used today inhibit the role of serotonin and norepinephrine transporters, therefore preventing reuptake of targeted neurotransmitters. Although TCA’s are much cheaper to administer to patients, the overall rate of patients running depression-free is significantly lower than those patients who are prescribed SSRI’s.
Background Information Aspirin is an analgesic (pain relieving) and an antipyretic drug (a drug that lowers body temperature). The main constituent of aspirin is 2 - ethanoythydroxybenzoic acid, also known as acetylsalicyclic acid (shown below right). It was originally made from just salicylic acid (which is found in the bark of a willow tree) when used by the Ancient Greeks to counter fever and pain, but its bitterness and tendency to irritate the stomach caused problems. These were resolved by the German chemist Felix Hoffman, who made the acetyl derivative of salicylic acid in the
Hippocrates' authority lasted throughout the Middle Ages and reminded alchemists and medical experimenters of the potential of inorganic drugs. In fact, a distant descendant of Hippocrates' prescriptions was the use of antimony salts in elixirs (alcoholic solutions) advocated by Basilius Valentius in the middle of the 15th century and by the medical alchemist Phillippus Aureolus Paracelsus (born Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim, in Switzerland, 1493-1541).