Criminologists study crime in hopes of understanding criminal behaviour to reduce offending and improve public safety. Multiple theories exist within the criminological field to explain crime but this essay will focus its evaluation on spatial and affective criminology. It would begin with how spatial criminology has impacted perceptions of space and its benefits towards policing strategies. The essay will then move forward with affective criminology by demonstrating how affective criminology provided a deeper understanding of how spaces influence an individual’s pattern of behaviour and differentiating types of affect spaces may lead to.
Criminologists have studied space as geographic sites for criminal behaviour in hopes of gaining a better
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Non-representational theory (NRT) examines how members of the public engage within different spaces; it evaluates how shared experiences, routines and interactions amongst individuals can influence a space or an environment (Hayward 2012). With NRT, spaces can be categorised into parafunctional, container, virtual, and acoustic spaces, and each type of space has different regulations in place (Hayward 2012). Parafunctional space refers to forsaken or functionless sites without any forms of surveillance systems in place to maintain conduct (Hayward 2012). Some examples of parafunctional spaces include abandoned playgrounds and broken-down factories. Parafunctional spaces are not subjected to regulations, therefore they are not restricted to societal standards of conduct. Container spaces, such as shopping malls, consist of boundaries and surveillance to regulate movements and behaviours within an area or location (Hayward 2012). They subconsciously conform to rules and follow the flow of movements. It creates a sense of security for the public as an internal rule of conduct is understood and accepted by those who enter the space. Virtual spaces are …show more content…
Other than labelling geographic sites as hotspots on maps, criminologists should study how individuals interact within spaces and the influences of space on human behaviour (Hayward 2012). Individuals experience different emotions and reactions when encountering spaces and studies have begun examining the affect with relation to criminal behaviour. It is important to note that the notion of affect is related to intensity instead of identity (Halsey & Young 2006), whereby it concerns the range of reactions an individual first experiences. Affect is not an emotion but a slow reaction in which an individual undergoes before he or she recognises the physical and emotional responses from the body (Ansaloni & Tedeschi 2016). Individuals experience and interact with spaces in various ways (Campbell 2013). As a result, they can be positively or negatively affected depending on how their body interacts with the space (Ansaloni & Tedeschi 2016). A space can be originally designed to stimulate a sense of normality and security (Campbell 2013). When being in a safe space, individuals feel a range of positive emotions which eventually encourages them to adhere to the rules and norms. Different strategies are implemented within spaces to instil a sense of security; some examples include installing surveillance cameras and hiring security guards. However, such
White, R. & Haynes, F. (1996) Crime and Criminology: an introduction. Oxford University Press UK.
White, R., Haines, F., & Eisler, L. (2008). Crime & criminology: An introduction. Don Mills, Ontario, Canada: Oxford University Press.
The premise of routine activity theory moves away from the suggestion that crime is caused by social impacts such as unemployment, inequality and low socio economic status, and rather looks at crime occurring when there is a convergence of a motivated offender, a suitable target and a lack of suitable guardians (Cohen & Felson, 2010). Routine activity theory focuses on trends in behaviour, and asserts that crime is specific to space and time (Williams, 2012). Routine activity theory looks at the differing risks that different locations possess, and the correlation between different lifestyles and victimisation (Cohen & Felson, 1979). By identifying the factors that can influence a person or a place being at an increased risk of victimisation, it may be possible to educate residents, increase the number of capable guardians and apply strategies to reduce crime by utilising law enforcement and increasing guardianship (Cullen & Wilcox,
...e of the risk for offenders or reducing the attractiveness of potential targets has the great impact on criminal and disorder activities. According to the authors these approaches are part of the interventions of hot spot because they include things like razing abandoned buildings and cleaning up graffiti. However, the increase of misdemeanor arrests of offenders contribute to the crime control in hot spot but not as much situational efforts does (Braga and bond 2008). Authors stated that situational crime prevention strategies are essential for addressing crime in hot spots rather than the aggressive order maintenance of arrests in high disorder places. In other words, if police officers only make arrest in hot spot this will not effectively reduce crime because they need to develop a more complex approach to deal with high crime areas ( Braga & Weisburd , 2010).
Criminologists also look at social factors and how they can influence crime. Rates of crime can be linked into social policies and this is what criminologists set out to identify. They’d do this by looking at social, political or economic factors that might make different types of crime more prevalent in certain areas. This can affect safe housing and education of people who live in these areas. This is very comparable to the idea from a social policy point of view that living in social housing also has detrimental effects on education attainment. Baldwin (1979) states that providing social housing and policies implemented by local authorities effected the distribution of crime in the UK. Baldwin and Bottoms (1976) conducted a study in Sheffield to try and find out why some housing estates are affected more by criminal activity. It was soon discovered that reputation on top of public housing policies were a major factor in crime distribution on certain estates. Residents often came and went but they almost felt like they had a duty to keep the reputation of the area alive. Criminologists have come to view some social problems as criminal justice problems. When certain areas look different or aren’t as well maintained as others they begin to develop social repercussions. Repercussions such as making it harder for the people who come from these areas to find employment or, even hinder moving into other social
Investigators commonly employ geographic profiling and investigative psychology when attempting to solve a crime. Geographic profiling means investigators can “tell you where the offender is likely to be based” (UQx Crime101x The Psychology of Criminal Justice 2014). Geographic profiling not only tells investigators where an offender possibly lives, but can also tell investigators where the offender possibly works or frequents. Investigative psychology profiles
Tony Hiss Author of The Experience of Place brings to our attention that as humans “We react, consciously or unconsciously, to the places where we live and work, in ways we scarcely notice or that are only now becoming known to us…In short, the places where we spend our time affect the people we are and can become.” Place defines characteristics in both human and extended moral communities. Place is not necessarily specific to gender, race, generation or specie. This understanding and recognition of place is fundamental when thinking about institutionalizing ecological and social responsibility.
A sense of place is the ideology that people possess when they feel that they belong to a given surrounding. Therefore, through their existence and a sense of belonging on a given environment, people do tend to have a special connection with their immediate surroundings, and therefore, they will do everything to protect their habitat. This, in a sense, is instrumental in affecting the positionality of people with such belonging to one given
The field of criminology has produced multiple theories, each that shaped the perception of how crimes occur in a neighborhood and by viewing these various impressions this can help explain why crimes occur. However, four criminological theories have developed the different perspectives of researchers and outlooks of the field. These approaches have enhanced society by allowing it to analyze crime by establishing an empirical foundation that way to assess which approach is most useful and regulate the difference between a good theory and a bad theory. Every method experiences level of criticisms from either researchers or public policies, however, the focus is only based on four principles that way there can be an assessment to decide which approach is viewed as right or wrong. In order, to determine which approach can be considered a good theory versus a bad theory there needs to be essential elements that give support for each theory. There needs to be criticism, however, with enough empirical evidence that can determine which
..., Larry J. (2006). Criminology: Theories, Patterns, & Typologies, 9th edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 0-495-00572-X. Print. 25 Feb 2014.
How do criminological theories assist in the understanding of crime and subsequent development of government policies on crime and disorder.
Sense of place is the “development of level of comfort and feelings of safety that are associated with a place” (Kopec, p. 62). These associations often translate into that desired sense of belonging, and allow individuals the ability to “develop feelings of attachment to particular settings based on combinations of use, attractiveness, and emotion” (Stokowski, 2002). Developing these psychological connections with certain places lends itself to the concept of place attachment, or, “a person’s bond with the social and physical environments of a place” (Kopec, p. 62). These places often hold deep meaning for people because their identities were established among their surroundings. This affiliation between a person and their place is often seen through personal connection, comfort, and security (Kopec, p. 131). Many people feel as though the place they are in should have its own “special character”, or an identity that defines it, and distinguishes it from other places (Kopec, p.1). Kopec states, “An environment’s distinct spatial features, how it compares with others, its connections to personal life paths, and its potential for change combine to affect the meanings places have for people”. An establishment of this sense of place identity ...
The politics, religion, status, age, and social standards of people determine acceptable boundaries for personal space. What is acceptable in the United States differs from what is acceptable in Europe or the Middle East when interacting in each other’s space. Indeed, despite biological similarities as a human race, the social influences that surround an individual affect behavior (Trolley, “Personal Space”). Therefore, each culture must be sensitive to others’ established boundaries, knowing that personal space is just that: personal.
The geography of fear and fear of crime in society today has been widely researched. In this essay, fear of crime is used in the context of an individual’s perceived risk of becoming a victim of crime. This essay will explain Cater and Jones statement and discuss how media portrayal, environmental incivility in urban areas leading to loss of authority of space by local people and urban encroachment of rural areas shape the ‘geography of fear’. These factors at individual, neighbourhood and community level will be evaluated in ways so fear of crime can be reduced in urban and rural areas. ‘In its social and behavioural impact fear of crime may be as potent as victimisation itself’ (Cater and Jones, 1989: 104) relates to the geography of crime, best defined as ‘the relevance of space to the study of criminal offenders, the incidence of crime and the characteristics of victims’ (Smith, 1989).
Criminology is the study of crime and criminals; a branch of sociology. More accurately, it is the study of crime as a social trend, and its overall origins, its many manifestations and its impact upon society as a whole. That makes it more a form of sociology than a law enforcement tool. But the trends it studies have a huge impact on the way the police do their jobs, the way society treats its criminals, and the way a given community goes about maintaining law and order. The writer will describe and give examples of the three perspectives of viewing crimes. The perspectives that will be highlighted are the consensus view, the conflict view or the interactionist view. Each perspective maintain its own interpretation of what constitutes criminal activities and what causes people to engage in criminal behaviors (Siegel, p.12).