Today, obesity is a concerning worldwide epidemic. Recent studies have shown evidence of a link between obesity and chronic inflammation. Researchers are now looking at adipose tissue, which were previously thought only as energy storages, as a cause for inflammatory diseases. Adipose tissue release proteins known as adipokines, some are pro-inflammatory proteins (Ouchi et al., 2011). One of these pro-inflammatory adipokines is leptin. Leptin is most commonly known for decreasing food intake, energy conservation, and a key regulator of body weight, but one of its most important functions could be the role it plays in inflammatory diseases like osteoarthritis (Popa et al., 2005). Osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint disorder; this disease is increasing in severity and frequency around the world (Yang et al., 2013). The risk of osteoarthritis increases when the body mass index increases (Bokarewa et al., 2003). Studies have also found an increase in leptin levels in patients with this type of arthritis. Studies have linked leptin with interleukin-1, VCAM-1, and interleukin-6 as a cause for osteoarthritis. Leptin is an important factor in the mechanism of osteoarthritis.
Leptin levels are high in obese people; these levels are also high in the synovial fluid of osteoarthritis patients. Leptin in the synovial fluid activates multiple pathways. Leptin with pro-inflammatory cytokines cause inflammation. Leptin with interleukin-1 increases the nitrite accumulation in the chondrocyte. Nitrite accumulation can cause apoptosis and extracellular matrix degradation. When leptin is in synergy with interluekin-1, it can activate a signaling pathway that increases the nitrite accumulation. Human primary chondrocytes were used to study nitrit...
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...go, R., Gomez, R., Lago, F., Dieguez, C., Gómez-Reino, J.J., Lago,
F., Gualillo, O. 2005. Signaling pathway involved in nitric oxide synthase type II activation in chondrocytes: synergistic effect of leptin with interleukin-1. Arthritis Res. Ther. 7:R581-R591.
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The pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes is characterized by both insulin resistance and insulin secretion. Peripheral insulin resistance and inadequate insulin secretion by the pancreas due is due to beta cell dysfunction. The resistance results in elevated free fatty acids and inflammation which leads to an overall decreased amount of glucose taken up into the muscle, increased glucose production, and incr...
Cox-Foster, D. L., Conlan, S., Holmes, E. C., Palacios, G., Evans, J. D., Moran, N. A.,…
The majority of clinical cases of laminitis occur at pasture where there is an accumulation of rapidly fermentable non-structural carbohydrates (NSC) such as fructans, simple sugars or starches (Geor, 2010). Pasture-associated laminitis has major economic and welfare implications in the equine sector. Increased risk factors include insulin resistance, increased insulin secretory response, hypertriglyceridaemia and obesity (Asplin, et al., 2007;Carter, et al., 2009 and de Laat, et al., 2010). Insulin resistance has been associated with a number of problems in the horse, most notably laminitis. Insulin resistance can be defined as a physiological condition in which cells have a diminished response to normal actions of the hormone insulin. Insulin is produced but the cells become resistant and are less capable in transporting glucose from the bloodstream to muscle and other tissues. In horses, insulin resistance is associated with a number of diseases such as Equine Metabolic Syndrome (Powell, et al., 2002; Hoffman, et al., 2003;Vick, et al., 2006 and Frank, et al., 2009), Equine Cushing Disease (McGowan, et al., 2004 and Walsh, et al., 2009) and Laminitis (Treiber, et al., 2006;Bailey, et al., 2007;McGowan, 2008 and Geor, 2008). Obesity and insulin resistance in ponies has become a common problem and there is a growing awareness on the role that diet and exercise has to play (Jeffcott, et al., 1986; Frank, et al., 2006 and Vick & Adams, 2007). Over-expressed adipocytokines, such as leptin, have been suggested to impair insulin signalling and cause the up regulation of inflammatory cytokines. This then further contributes to impaired insulin signalling and endothelial dysfunction (Radin, et al., 2009). The restriction of energy throu...
9.Wang, P. S., Gruber, M. J., Powers, R. E., Schoenbaum, M., Speier, A. H., Wells, K. B., &
The most common musculoskeletal disorder and a major cause of disability in people over 65 years is osteoarthritis (OA) (Felson DT et al, 1987) (1). According to World Health Organization (WHO) report, OA of knee is more likely to become the fourth most important cause of disability in women, and the eighth most important cause in men (Murray CJL, Lopez AD, 1997)(2) . Primary prevention of knee OA has become a major health care aim and a clear understanding of the risk factors is required to design preventive strategies. Many investigations reported obesity, previous history of knee injury, sedentary life style, hand OA (Heberden’s nodes), and a familial history of the disease are major risk factors for OA of knee (Cyrus Cooper et al, 2000) (3). In spite of recent advancements the causes and pathogenesis of knee OA remains largely unknown (A Teichtahl, A Wluka, F M Cicuttini, 2003) (4) but however there is increasing research interest in the contribution of biomechanical variables on progression and management of the disease (Andriacchi TP, 1991) (5).
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Gilliam, J. (2016). How to Address Obesity in the Patient with Osteoarthritis of the Weight Bearing Joints. PhysicalTherapist.com. Retrieved From
Heart failure is a condition in which the heart muscle becomes too weak to maintain an adequate cardiac output to meet the body’s oxygen demands (Wilmore, et al., 2008). Hypertension is a sustained condition when the blood pressure exceeds 140/90 mm Hg. It is estimated that about thirty percent of people ages fifty and over have hypertension. Type II diabetes is considered a milder form of diabetes and is characterized by impaired insulin secretion, impaired insulin action, or excessive glucose output from the liver (Wilmore, et al., 2008). The consequences of uncontrolled and untreated Type II diabetes, however, are the just as serious as those for Type I. This form is also called noninsulin-dependent diabetes, a term that is somewhat misleading. Many people with Type II diabetes can control the condition with diet and oral medications, however, insulin injections are sometimes necessary if treatment with diet and oral medication is not working. Gallbladder diseases from obesity mainly consist of Cholecystitis which is inflammation of the gallbladder. Osteoarthritis is a progressive disorder of the joints caused by gr...
...-membrane outer membrane proteins have lagged behind the studies of lipoproteins due to their aberrant behavior by Triton X-114 detergent fractionation. Due to this reason, trans-membrane outer membrane proteins can be best characterized by assessing membrane integration as well as surface exposure. Not surprisingly, some of the outer membrane proteins that are involved in mediating host–pathogen interactions are strongly regulated by the conditions that are found in mammalian host tissues. For instance, the leptospiral immunoglobulin-like repeat proteins are dramatically induced by the osmolarity and they would mediate the interactions with host extracellular matrix proteins. Development of latest molecular tools in genetics is making it possible to understand the roles of these and several other outer membrane proteins in the mechanism of leptospiral pathogenesis.