Some severe asthmatics who require high doses of ICS and prednisone appear to be susceptible to recurrent infections. Bacterial infections can lead to chronic lower airway inflammation and worsening of asthma. This is widely believed to be a result of steroid usage which suppresses the inflammatory response. However, a recent study by Zuccaro et al., has reported a relationship between HDAC activity and the expression of scavenger receptors on macrophages, which may suggest an underlying predisposition to infection. Specifically, HDAC inhibition resulting from increased PI3K levels in severe asthmatics has been associated with a reduction in innate immune genes in macrophages including the scavenger receptor (MARCO) (Figure 2).7 MARCO has shown to play a role in anti-bacterial host defenses as it can bind gram-positive bacteria such as staphylococcus aureus and gram-negative bacteria.8 Decreased MARCO expression was seen in asthmatics that had recurrent infective neutrophilic bronchitis compared to asthmatics who did not have a history of recurrent infective bronchitis. These patients also had a significant reduction in HDAC.7 HDAC …show more content…
Genome analysis of patients with recurrent infections and a family history of susceptibility to infections identified a glutamic acid for lysine substitution mutation at position 1021 (E1021k) of the p110g protein, the catalytic subunit of PI3K. Individuals with the E1021K mutation had increased PI3k activity. Unregulated PI3k activity has been shown to increase phosphorylated AKT, impairing B cell function and antibody production, which may predispose to recurrent infections.14 Further research is required to investigate the effect of this mutation on AM function. Increased PI3k activity could have a profound impact on both HDAC2 and MARCO activity, contributing to both steroid insensitivity and infection (Figure
Flak TA, Goldman WE (1999) Signalling and cellular specificity of airway nitric oxide production in pertussis. Cell Microbiol 1:51–60
Rook, G. A. W. (2012). Hygiene hypothesis and autoimmune diseases. Clinical reviews in allergy & immunology, 42(1), 5-15.
“Immune Response: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia.” National Library of Medicine - National Institutes of Health. Web. 18 Dec. 2011. .
Makover, M. & Zieve, D. (2011, February 14). Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved July 14, 2012, from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001471/
Capriotti & Frizzell (2016) explain that sepsis is often seen in those who have a weak immune system. These individuals are at an increased risk of developing sepsis from microorganisms that a healthy immune system would normally fight off (Capriotti et al. 2016). The elderly, infants, and immunosuppressed patients are the most at risk for developing the condition (Capriotti et al. 2016). Sepsis can be caused by any microbe, but is most often caused by bacteria (Capriotti et al. 2016). Since sepsis has such a broad reach and can develop as a secondary infection after an initial injury or illness, Capriotti & Frizzell (2016) further explain the di...
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that impedes the body’s ability to intake oxygen into the lungs by the narrowing of bronchial airways. Inflamed bronchioles are the cause for tissue sensitivity to “triggers” such as cold weather, dust, smoke, and chemicals resulting in asthma attack. Asthma is characterized by airway inflammation as well as pathophysiological changes such as smooth muscle mass increase, subepithelial fibrosis, goblet cell hyperplasia, and more causing that airway to constrict and close. Commonly referred to as airway remodeling. Smooth muscle cells represent themselves as the major structure cell in the bronchiole airway, considered one of the major players in airway remodeling. Furthermore airway smooth muscle
There is a disease spreading out in the world called Hepatitis C. It affects the liver and may cause the liver to fail. This disease is caused by a virus called Hepatitis C virus which is also known as HCV. About 32,000 people are affected with this disease per year only in the United States area. Some It’s a disease with many symptoms and many causes. of these symptoms are easy bruising, upset stomach and fever. These are just some of the many symptoms that come from the virus. Hepatitis Cs nature of the causative agent is determined by many things. The biological data of this disease is filled so much information. It is estimated that over 180 million people have gotten Hepatitis C and it is growing.
Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) have been a persistent problem in the United States for decades. Yang et al. (2013) stated that “Nosocomial infections or healthcare-associated infections are defined as a localized or systemic condition resulting from an adverse reaction to the presence of an infectious agent or its toxin. There must be no evidence that the infection was present or incubating at the time of admission to the acute care setting” Also if infections occur within 48 hours of being discharged from the hospital or a healthcare setting, then it is considered as a healthcare-associated infection (Daud-Gallotti et al., 2012). Healthcare-associated infections can be easily prevented, however they are held accountable for hundreds of thousands of deaths for the past few decades. They have been known to increase rates of drawn-out hospital stays, cost, morbidity, mortality, and readmission to the hospital (Montoya & Mody, 2011). When antibiotic-resistant organisms (AROs) are involved with these types of infections, the rates are expanded even further and usually cause many more fatalities (Srigley, Lightfoot, Fernie, Gardam & Muller, 2013).
Dugdale, D. C. (2014, February 26). Autoimmune disorders: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Retrieved March 19, 2014, from http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000816.htm
Nosocomial infections also known as healthcare associated infections (HAI’s) are infections that patients get while receiving treatment for another condition in a healthcare facility. In 2011, there were an estimated 722,000 HAIs in U.S acute care hospitals and of those about 75,000 died (CDC, 2014).The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) estimates the financial burden attributable to HAIs to be between $28 billion to $33 billion each year.
Stress does not directly causes infections or ill-health to a person. Instead, the products produced in the process of stress interfere with the usual operations of the immune system. Numerous studies have proved that stress has an immunosuppressive effect, which means the functions of the immune system is reduced when an individual is experience stress (Gross et al., 2008). Corticosteroids are initially produced during the alarm stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), they do not usually cause any harm to the immune system. However, if the presence of corticosteroids is prolonged in the blood due to chronic stress, they can interfere with the production of the antibodies leaving the body vulnerable to harmful virus and bacteria (Gross et al., 2008). As described in the G.A.S model by Selye, individuals might experience drastic changes in their body such as high blood pressures and heart rates in order to cope during the stressful situations. If these changes are prolonged, this could lead to permanent damage to the body (Bailey et al, 2008).
Chronic bronchitis is a disorder that causes inflammation to the airway, mainly the bronchial tubules. It produces a chronic cough that lasts three consecutive months for more than two successive years (Vijayan,2013). Chronic Bronchitis is a member of the COPD family and is prominently seen in cigarette smokers. Other factors such as air pollutants, Asbestos, and working in coal mines contributes to inflammation. Once the irritant comes in contact with the mucosa of the bronchi it alters the composition causing hyperplasia of the glands and producing excessive sputum (Viayan,2013). Goblet cells also enlarge to contribute to the excessive secretion of sputum. This effects the cilia that carry out the mechanism of trapping foreign bodies to allow it to be expelled in the sputum, which are now damaged by the irritant making it impossible for the person to clear their airway. Since the mechanism of airway clearance is ineffective, the secretion builds up a thickened wall of the bronchioles causing constriction and increasing the work of breathing. The excessive build up of mucous could set up pneumonia. The alveoli are also damaged enabling the macrophages to eliminate bacteria putting the patient at risk for acquiring an infection.
One of the many wonders of a perfectly functioning and healthy human body is its immune system, which may be considered as a powerful set of tools developed for resisting any sudden invasion of microorganisms or, any foreign particle as such. The striking feature of the immune system is self-tolerance, i.e. the body recognizes its own molecules and does not mount an immune response against them. Yet, there are some instances when this defence mechanism reverses and attacks the human body itself. This process, known as autoimmunity, is highly complex and is defined by loss of self-tolerance and the presence of autoantibodies or T-lymphocytes reactive with host antigens. Autoimmunity, although present in everyone to some extent, is the cause of a broad spectrum of human illnesses, called autoimmune diseases. Multiple factors are involved and the disease progression is determined by both genetic and environmental triggers. Pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases is governed by chronic excess reactivity of B and T cells against autoantigens, evidence of lymphocytic infiltrates in target organs and associated tissue damage.
IN CONCLUSION, we can say that stress produces hormones (particularly glucocorticoids) which have a negative impact on the immune system when our bodies are exposed to them for a long period of time. However, when our immune system is exposed to particular stressors for a shorter period of time it may actually have a positive effect on our immune system and actually give it a “boost”. Stress in general has a major effect on our cytokines, natural killer cells and our T-lymphocytes, as they are most sensitive to the anti-inflammatory glucocorticoids. The Macrophage migratory inhibitory factor is one of the main reasons why our immune systems become hypersensitive to any allergens, when our bodies produce glucocorticoids. Stress therefore does have quite a large effect on our immune system and our body’s ability to fight disease.
Some people are more susceptible to type I hypersensitivity then others and the precise mechanism is not known. However, it has been shown that such individuals preferentially produce more of TH2 cells that secrete IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13 which in turn favor IgE class switch. IgE has very high affinity for its receptor (Fcε; CD23) on mast cells and basophils. (#1)