Stewart, Philip S, (2001) states that antibiotics are elements that are used to kill, or hinder the multiplication and growth of organisms. Especially, these antibiotics are meant to control fungi and bacteria. In this case, the antibiotics that are used in killing bacteria are referred to as bactericidal, and the ones that are used to prevent the multiplication process are bacteriostatic. The primary microbes for antibiotics are bacteria and fungi. These microorganisms are crucial to facilitate the secretion of substances that kill harmful bacteria which confer competition for the limited available nutrients (Southern, P. J., &Berg, 1981).
Antibiotics are classified according to their performances and the type of microorganisms that they get
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In this case, it means that the antibiotic must have been effective in initially controlling the microorganisms(Southern, P. J., & Berg, 1981).The resistance aspect is enabled by the mutation aspect of the organism’s genes and natural selection as well. Thus, the bacteria are deemed to develop natural resistance to the antibiotics, in that the supplements cannot make any physical or chemical changes to them when they are exposed to …show more content…
This is deduced from the radius of the center of the circle. Thus, it means that as the bacteria are exposed to Novobiocin throughout the five generations, it leads to an increase in antibiotic resistance. The resistance further seems to be rapid on the first exposure period, which is experienced between generation 1 and generation 3, as a result of the steep slope. In reflection to our bodies, the more one takes a specific antibiotic to cure a certain infection, the more ineffective the antibiotic becomes due to the resistance build up by the disease causing microorganisms.
As per the experiment, the probability of the antibiotic resistance in real population is 1/5, which means that the resistance of the antibiotics builds up in every generation, which can later lead to complete immunity to the antibiotics. The effectiveness of the antibiotics decrease with an increase of its usage over the generations.
Selection would enable the bacteria to alter their genetic properties to match the common antibiotic. As a result, the increased usage among the population would make the bacteria resistant to the antibiotics. Thus, the antibiotics won’t be useful anymore to control the bacterial infections.
The change for the bacteria over time is Total = Initial X 2N
Initial= 1
Number of generations=
A common healthcare acquired infection that is seen both inside and outside of the hospital is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). MRSA can have detrimental effects on the patient and is usually acquired within the hospital setting. The PICOT statement has many important aspects to include such as: population, intervention, comparison, outcome, and time, which is used to produce an evidence-based question. According to Schmidt & Brown (2012), the PICOT statement is used in evidence-based practice is to make decisions about patient care based on evidence with clinical expertise appraisal and current research while also considering patient preferences and values. The PICOT statement: In patients between the ages of 30 and 70 admitted
Background: Merck & Co. is an American pharmaceutical company and one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world. In 1971 the United States approved the use of an MMR vaccine made by Merck, containing the Jeryl Lynn strain of mumps vaccine. In 1978 Merck introduced the MMR II, using a different strain of the rubella vaccine. In 1997 the FDA required Merck to conduct effectiveness testing of MMRII. Initially it was over 95%; to continue the license; Merck had to convince the FDA that the effectiveness stayed at a similar rate over the years.
Throughout history disease has run rampant taking many lives with every passing day. Finding a cure or even just a tool in the battle has been the main focus of scientist throughout time. This focus is what brought us the discovery of antibiotics. Over the years antibiotics have been misused by patients, over prescribed by physicians and have led to resistant strains of bacteria.
Antibiotics are medicines that fight bacteria. Antibiotics can save lives, if used properly. Antibiotics either kill bacteria or keep them from multiplying.
If we don’t have antibiotics all bacteria reproduce at a similar rate. With the antibiotic the non-resistant individuals die but there is an increase in the resistant alleles. The genetic diversity is generated by rapid reproduction which because there is an increase rate of mutations which creates new alleles. It is also generated because bacteria can share DNA through gene transfer and they are also able to pick up DNA from the environment. This creates a threat to us because currently scientists have discovered at least one bacteria strain with resistance to each of the current
When bacteria are frequently exposed to antibiotics it can become resistant to the drug so that it is no longer effective in treating a specific illness (Visser). To compensate for unhygienic environments and to accelerate growth, antibiotics are often given to food animals in the U.S. In 2011, 29.9 million pounds of antibiotics were sold in America for meat and poultry production ("Record"). Many of the types of antibiotics used in food animal production is also used in human medicine, and according to the WHO, “widespread use of antim...
Bacterial resistance to antibiotics has presented many problems in our society, including an increased chance of fatality due to infections that could have otherwise been treated with success. Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections, but overexposure to these drugs give the bacteria more opportunities to mutate, forming resistant strains. Through natural selection, those few mutated bacteria are able to survive treatments of antibiotics and then pass on their genes to other bacterial cells through lateral gene transfer (Zhaxybayeva, 2011). Once resistance builds in one patient, it is possible for the strain to be transmitted to others through improper hygiene and failure to isolate patients in hospitals.
Over the years humans have tried every possibility to overcome the health problems, spread of epidemics and infections, disease control and have worked towards a healthy society free of disease and health problems. They have succeeded to a great extent. The book “Good germs, bad germs” describes that though the life expectancy is now far more as it was in previous eras. Epidemic problems and infectious diseases are now getting lesser and lesser and humans are being treated successfully. The hygienic conditions have also been improved so as to ensure least growth of microbes, germs, parasites and bacteria. Antibiotics have been invented to address diseases and infections caused by bacteria and viruses. With all these substantial efforts the biologists, physicians and scientists have triggered another epidemic which is even more severe. They have killed those microbes and bacterial species which were human friendly and as a result of either their disruption or mutation, pathogenic bacteria have even become more active and resistant to treatments. This has led to increased ineffectiveness of antibiotic drugs, low immunity and various infections and inflammatory diseases. The chlorinated water for drinking and food processing along with excessive hygienic conditions indicates our fight against these bacteria and germs. Further, these antibiotics are even given to the livestock which becomes our food and as result many of their resistant germs end up in our digestive tract and other organs. Thus, the war against microbes through excessive cleanliness and use of antibiotics has resulted in antibiotic resistance among humans, which has become one of the prominent problems of medical science
Merck & Co. has to be aware of the economy as with any industry. Within the recession, more and more were looking towards generic substitutes. This can at times not be a problem with patents. However, once a patent is up, a competitor who develops generic versions of Merck’s products becomes a low-cost competitor. However, during the recession from 2008 – 2009, Merck didn’t see any drop in sales. Actually, they were able to keep a continual increase in sales and net income.
The Use of Antibiotics and Hormones in Animal Feed Antibiotics are chemicals produced by living organisms that are used to kill or inhibit the growth of other infectious micro-organisms. Most antibiotics prevent the growth of microorganisms, which they act on instead of completely killing them. Antibiotics are extra cellular products meaning that they can be extracted for use; Penicillin is an example of this as it comes from the fungus Penicillium notatum1. Hormones are chemicals that transfer information and instructions between cells in animals and plants. They regulate growth and development, controlling the function of various tissues.
In the last decade, the number of prescriptions for antibiotics has increases. Even though, antibiotics are helpful, an excess amount of antibiotics can be dangerous. Quite often antibiotics are wrongly prescribed to cure viruses when they are meant to target bacteria. Antibiotics are a type of medicine that is prone to kill microorganisms, or bacteria. By examining the PBS documentary Hunting the Nightmare Bacteria and the article “U.S. government taps GlaxoSmithKline for New Antibiotics” by Ben Hirschler as well as a few other articles can help depict the problem that is of doctors prescribing antibiotics wrongly or excessively, which can led to becoming harmful to the body.
Resistance first appears in a population of bacteria through conditions that favor its selection. When an antibiotic attacks a group of bacteria, cells that are highly susceptible to the medicine will die. On the other hand, cells that have some resistance from the start or acquire it later may survive. At the same time, when antibiotics attack disease-causing bacteria, they also attack benign bacteria. This process eliminates drug-susceptible bacteria and favors bacteria that are resistant. Two things happen, populations of non-resistant and harmless bacteria are diminished, and because of the reduction of competition from these harmless and/or susceptible bacteria, resistant forms of disease-causing bacteria proliferate. As the resistant forms of the bacteria proliferate, there is more opportunity for genetic or chromosomal mutation (spontaneous DNA mutation (1)) or transformation, that comes about either through a form of microbial sex (1) or through the transference of plasmids, small circles of DNA (1), which allow bacteria to interchange genes with ease. Sometimes genes can also be t...
Thesis: With the advent of antibiotics in 1929 Fleming said, "The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops.Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant."With the overuse of antibiotics today we have seen this very idea come to be.Over usage is caused most prevalently by a lack of education on the part of the patient.Thus stated, the way to overcome such a circumstance is to educate, not only the patient but also the physician.
Antibiotics have been critical in fighting bacteria-caused diseases for the past 60 years. Bacteria in the human body are able to reproduce at a rapid rate and this is a huge problem when the bacteria are disease-causing. Antibiotics are drugs that are able to stop bacterial growth, and kill off bacteria in living organisms.
With the increased cost of manufacturing, pharmaceutical companies have been divesting in their smaller or less profit making operations and focus on large segments. Many Pharmaceutical companies sold their manufacturing sites to contract manufacturing organizations. The dynamics of interfacing with contract manufacturing organization added intricacy in pharmaceutical supply chain network of pharmaceutical companies.