Stephen Shennan's concern with how non-state agrarian societies have been characterized by archaeological studies in the past is well founded. Characterizing (and categorizing) non-state societies as stepping-stones evolving into future states is an outdated approach to these studies. The approach he proposed would focus on our understanding the archaeological record as the remains of social practices, rather than generalized social institutions. He refers to Bourdieu's theory of practice, and stresses the need to ground social archaeology in the micro-scale of day-to-day activities in our analyses. The study of long-term change, patterns of inequality, domination and resistance can be investigated through statistical analysis of the distributions of outcomes.
Bourdieu's theory of practice is again a large influence in A Dual-Processual Theory for the Evolution of Mesoamerican Civilization (Blanton, et. al.). They focus on process rather than stages or categories to explain variations between social formations and their changes through time. They advocate a political behavioral theory of social change, seeing two main types of political power strategies accounting for variation among societies of similar complexity and scale; exclusionary (or network) and corporate. The outcome of exclusionary political behavior is the development of patrimonial rhetoric, emphasizing the control of particular individuals based on kinship (found in the archaeological record by portrayals or reference to particular rulers), and a prestige-goods system, resulting in an "international style" in goods and information crossing sociocultural boundaries. The corporate strategy signifies collective representations and ritual based on a societies cosmology.
John Douglas questions the reliability of applying the three common models used to analyze exchange in the archaeological record; World Systems Theory, peer polity interaction, and prestige goods economy. He then explores their expectations and assumptions with data analysis of pre-Paquime mortuary goods from northwest Chihuahua, Mexico. His comparisons demonstrate inadequacies in all three models, and the author points out that there are many potential explanations for long distance exchanges other than those offered by the three common models in use by archaeologists today. I agree with his recommendation that we have "a more open-ended approach in which exchange is viewed as a search for power contested both within and between societies."
Tammy Stone offers another non-linear perspective of studying non-state agrarian societies in her examination of the Zuni region of the American Southwest using changes in architecture and ceramics. She uses chaos theory to explain extensive and rapid sociopolitical, economic and ritual change (dissipative structures) in her case study.
"Creole Materialities: Archaeological Explorations Of Hybridized Realities On A North American Plantation. " Journal of Historical Sociology 23.1 (2010): 16-39. Academic Search Complete. 27 Apr. 2014. The 'Standard' of the 'Standard'. Web.
The Paradigm of the Periphery in Native North America by Christopher Bolfing discusses the movement of ideas, symbolism, religious ideology, and political forms after they disappear from their core centers to prove cultural survival in the periphery. Written in 2010 and supervised by Dr. Reilly, this thesis uses societies of the Greater Southeast area, such as Cahokia, Moundville, Etowah, and Lake Jackson, to provide evidence of the movement of ideas through the use of the “Paradigm of the Periphery” model. Bolfing’s organization, use of diagrams, and evidence are strengths within his paper, however, using too broad of an area and gatekeeping phrases weaken the argument.
Flannery, Kent V. "Archeological Systems Theory and Early Mesoamerica." Anthropological Archeology In The Americas. (1968). http://www.neiu.edu/~circill/hageman/anth396/archaeologicalsystems.pdf (accessed March 17, 2014).
Archaeology has a way of inspiring images of exotic times of long ago. Curiosity about the past has excited the hearts and minds of mankind for centuries. Oscar Wilde, a poet and archaeologist, said “[Archaeology] was a means by which they could touch the dry dust of antiquity into the very breath and beauty of life, and fill the new wine of romanticism forms that had been old and outworn” (p54). It’s easy for us to fantasize about a time much different than our own, and often we choose not to see the injustice and inequalities that existed. For the scope of this exposition, the focus will not be on the mysteries of the ancient world. Instead, it will be aimed at the economical inequalities of gender and class in the ancient society, and how archaeological evidence found in Mayan architecture, diet, and burial sites is used to detect these inequalities.
The biggest component which marked the shift in Ju/‘hoansi life would be the change from a hunter gatherer society to an agricultural society. The transition was not an easy one, as the unreliable rainfall and drastic seasonal changes made settling in one area a challenge. However, the Jus managed to raise livestock such as cattle and goats and grow ten different crops including tobacco, sorghum and maize.(Lee, 2003) Although these changes were beneficial as it increases the stability of the food supply in a community, it also restricted the mobility of the people. Farm life resulted in children having to start working at a young age and the subordination of women became more prevalent as they became housebound while their spouses left to seek job opportunities. Men started to leave home grounds to work at the mines to buy food and other goods. It was observed that these men incorporated the hxaro exchange system to the goods they bought, preserving traditional pra...
Architecture, like many things, can also be made for the use of or inspired by the symbols people believe in. Therefore, art and architecture in Ancient Mesoamerica can be stated to be made for the use of religious symbols. Making architecture and art forms takes effort, dedication, and patience. Architecture can take years to make, as was s...
Although the macrosociological and microsociaological theories typically tend to be bordered oppositional tactics, both of them have similar methods that are useful when it comes to learning about civilization. Furthermore, both theories are important in learning about the behavior of people. Modern forms of classic philosophies have reflect the outlooks within both theories (Bohm & Vogel, 2011). When referring to macrosociology
Society in the Incan Empire was made up of clans and families who lived and worked together. The social structure of the Incas had the Ruler and his wives at the top. Then came the High Priest and Army Commander in Chief. Next were the Regional Army Commanders, then the Temple Priests, architects, administrators and Army Generals. Next were the artisans, musicians, army captains and the...
Parada, P., & Pando, E. De. (2006). America ’ s First City ? The Case of Late Archaic Caral. In Andean Archaeology III North and South (Vol. 3, pp. 28–67). doi:10.1080/08858198809527931
“The Olmec introduced many things to the Americas, most of them good. However, the Xia/Olmec practice of Human sacrifice, which even intruded unto another Olmec invention, The Rubber Ball Game, was not. And there is no doubt, that the Amerindians wholehearted acceptance and subsequent practice of human sacrifice, was the major contributor to their demise. ...
The Neolithic Period, which includes events from 12,000 years ago, is one of the most important revolutions to occur in history. The Neolithic lifestyle was established first in the Middle East, and then later in the Yellow river basin in China, which then spread over the years into the Western Hemisphere. During this time period, the domestication of plants and animals and the development of cities was starting to become more prominent and well known to many different civilizations across many different countries. It consisted of many changes in human cultures from a lifestyle of hunting and gathering to one of farming and settlement, which supported a larger population. As civilizations expanded, so did traditions and techniques. A major technological and cultural change to modern ways of thinking and acting began in Western Europe, and from these beginning new approaches to science and law spread quickly around the world. It spread to countries, causing more people to become aware of when and where to properly irrigate a crop, which type of area had the best security, and other common living strategies. Surely enough, many years later, traditions are the same as they were thousands of years ago. Although traditions may not have changed, the way people think about their God and religions have changed from culture to culture. Throughout the years, men and women from the Middle West completely changed their relationship from nature, to a more independent lifestyle; human beings learned to have more control over their lives.
Firstly, the authors cover the evidence that essentially provides the groundwork for their argument about the emergent culture. That is, the rapid population expansion that occurred from around 950-1250, and the subsequent greater demand for food. This was only possible due to the innovations in technical agricultural machinery and farming methods; specifically, the rise of the mould board plough and horse traction, which allowed for efficient and sustainable farming. A growth in food supply also created a basis for profit and the private possession of farming land.
McKay, J/P/, Hill, B.D., Buckler, J., Ebrey, P.B., Beck, R.B., Crowston, C.H., & Wiesner-Hanks, M.E. (2008). A History of World Societies, Volume A: From Antiquity to 1500. New York, NY: Bedford/St. Martin's
McGee, Jon R., and Richard L. Warms. Anthropological Theory: An Introductory History. 5th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012. Print.
According to The Society for American Archaeology, the definition of Archaeology is, “to obtain a chronology of the past, a sequence of events and dates that, in a sense, is a backward extension of history.” The study of ancient civilizations and archaeology is rather ambiguous due to the primitive nature of the time period. With little imagery and even less textual evidence, professionals in the field must work diligently when studying their subjects. Naturally, archaeologists cannot see or communicate with those whom they are studying, so they must be extraordinarily meticulous when analyzing past cultures. This relates to all aspects of the ancient world including; foods, raw materials, artifacts, agriculture, art work and pottery. All of these elements can collectively provide new and innovative information to curious archaeologists who may wish to gain a better understanding of those who came before us. This information is equally beneficial for both historians and archaeologists who plan to compare the histories of societies from all around the world. In the world of archaeology, archaeologists strive to better explain human behavior by analyzing our past. Therefore, the study of archaeology is a key element in understanding a time before our own.