Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is one the most influential theories in developmental psychology. It details eight stages of development that cover a person’s lifespan, from birth to death. Being a psychosocial theory, it does not involve a hyperfocus on the individual; rather, it views the individual’s development within the larger context of the society and community they are a part of and the kinds of interactions they have with it. These interactions and their outcomes are a determining factor in the kind of ego, or sense of self, that an individual is able to build.

Background of Erickson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson was a prominent psychologist trained in Freudian psychoanalytic methods. The theory of personality, or personal development, that he devised, however, continued far beyond Sigmund Freud’s focus on the first five years of life. Erikson’s theory also shifted focus to the individual’s interactions with their external environment—in particular, society. 

Erikson divided the human lifespan into eight stages; at each of these, the individual faces a distinct conflict between their own psychological and emotional needs and their external environment. The successful resolution of these conflicts at these stages equips the individual with a virtue, or characteristic, that will help them in subsequent stages and chapters of life. 

On the other hand, if this resolution does not take place, it is likely to serve as a recurring stumbling block later on, often in the form of feelings of inadequacy. If this does occur, however, the successful resolution of a prior conflict at a later stage can also be done, usually through therapy or other methods of self-introspection by the individual. Successful resolution of each conflict is essential to the establishment of a strong sense of self.

The Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (0–18 months)

Virtue: Hope

As they enter this world and begin life, newborns are extremely dependent on their mothers and/or other primary caregivers. The fulfillment of their physical needs, from hunger to hygiene, is taken care of by the primary caregiver(s). 

This dependent stage is pivotal in the development of trust. If the child’s needs are taken care of sufficiently, they are more likely to develop the ability to trust (first, in the adults around them and then, later on, in the relationships they build with people within and outside of their family). On the other hand, neglect on the part of the parent results in the opposite result: the child grows up being distrusting of those around them. Mistrust takes root and guides further social interactions. While the development of trust is ideal, it should not be extreme enough to be delusional. A successful resolution to reach at this stage is one that strikes a balance between trust and mistrust, leading to the development of hope. An individual with hope is one who is able to look forward with expectations of a good future but within reasonable limits.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2–3 years)

Virtue: Will

Control over self and independence are the main themes of this stage of development. The child begins to develop the ability to perform certain functions for themselves as well as the ability to make decisions. 

A crucial event at this stage is toilet training. It instills in the child the ability to control and regulate a basic physical function. When successful, this sense of control over their own body boosts the child’s independence. This, in turn, makes them feel able and secure enough to explore other aspects of their environment with some confidence. 

Caregivers allowing the child to freely express their preferences in terms of food, clothing, and/or toys, and even allowing them to sometimes make their own decisions with regards to these, aid in the development of a sense of autonomy. 

Autonomy is the primary thrust of this stage. On the flip side, if the child experiences frequent failure, which may (or may not) be accompanied by excessive criticism or highlighting of the failure by the caregiver(s), they are most likely to develop deep-rooted feelings of shame and doubt regarding their abilities. The result is an individual who struggles with confidence and insecurity.

When the conflict at this stage attains a balanced resolution, the virtue of will is unlocked. The child establishes the link between intention and action—how the former initiates and guides the latter. They discover that once they have a will to do something, they can perform the action required. A sense of order within and around them begins to be established.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (3–5 years)

Virtue: Purpose

At this stage, most children begin to attend some form of pre-school. Environments such as these put them in the company of other children within the same age bracket. Thus, the engagement in and exploration of social interactions begin.

The individual begins to assert themself through speech and, especially, through play. They take the initiative to start conversations and to try to lead/guide the other children. 

The caretaker’s role, at this stage, is to provide a healthy balance. Excessive encouragement or criticism can affect the individual’s future social interactions. Strong criticisms or attempts to curtail the child from expressing themselves freely can lead to feelings of guilt and of being a nuisance.

Successful resolution results in the surfacing of a sense of purpose in the child. They also develop the abilities to work toward it in a group setting, through social interactions.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (6–11 years)

Virtue: Confidence

Children at this age begin to take note of their accomplishments and of the reactions of those around them. Tasks such as homework begin to be assigned to them at schools, and their work becomes subject to evaluation. They start recognizing the expectations that the adults around them appear to have. Achievements and accomplishments become subjects of pride in one’s abilities and a means to gain the approval of others. The reaction of parental figures to such success or failures impacts the nature of confidence that the child is able to build. Positive reinforcement, whether the child succeeded or failed, instills the virtue of confidence, while overt disappointment and similar negative reactions to failure bring to the fore and strengthen feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion (12–18 years)

Virtue: Fidelity

As the child grows into a teenager, their primary struggle becomes one of establishing a personal identity. The question of where they fit in the larger society predominates. It brings together several factors: what the individual’s abilities are, the manner in which they conduct social interactions and the responses they receive, and even what their bodies look like and are capable of performing. 

This is a stage of transition from childhood to adulthood, and the identity that the individual develops at this point of life influences much of their future. In order to develop this identity, exploration is very much necessary as their worldview expands. This exploration usually takes the form of experimentation; the scope for it ranges from substances to extracurriculars to different roles within friend groups and the family. A defined and recognizable sense of identity opens up the virtue of fidelity for the individual; having found their space, they are able to commit themselves to courses of action and people, and to accept the same from others around them. The lack of identity produces role confusion and the inability to commit and stay the course. The individual is unable to settle into a particular track and continues to wander and experiment.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (19–40 years)

Virtue: Love

At this stage, the individual attempts to build close, intimate personal relationships. The sense of identity developed during the previous stage is important for developing successful intimacy. Success aids in the creation of strong and long-lasting relationships marked by love. Failure produces feelings of emotional isolation. This may sometimes escalate into depression. The lack of a coherent sense of personal identity hinders the individual from developing closeness and commitment.

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (40–65 years)

Virtue: Care

As the individual approaches the seventh stage, they experience the need to “make their mark” on the world. The usefulness of creating something lasting appeals to them. This can take several different forms, from raising children to establishing institutions/organizations. There is a need to contribute to society around them. The family that has been nurtured and the career that has been built become tools to fulfill this need. The virtue of being able to care is what drives such behaviors. On the other hand, inability to address these needs successfully results in feelings of stagnation and then disinterest. Chronic unproductivity and frequent disillusionment causes the individual to distance themselves from society around them. Stagnation is dealt with through disconnectedness.

Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65 years–death)

Virtue: Wisdom

Old age is a time for reflection for most people. The individual looks back at what they have achieved throughout the course of their lifetime and considers whether they are satisfied and fulfilled by it or not. 

Success at this stage looks like contentment with the life one has led. While regrets cannot be entirely avoided, the individual is satisfied with the way their life has been conducted. There is a sense of coherence and wholeness to it. This satisfaction confers on them the virtue of wisdom. They feel that they understand various aspects of their contented life and are able to impart or pass their knowledge on.

Failure in this final stage of life is despair. Rather than contentment, the individual experiences deep dissatisfaction and unhappiness when they look back at their life. They grow embittered about life not lived well and fear the approaching end. Despair and fear characterize failure at this stage.

Evaluating Erikson’s Theory

The theory of development Erikson developed and the stages he formulated to articulate it are among the leading concepts in developmental psychology. The developmental theory that was predominant before Eriskson’s was Freud’s stages of psychosexual development. It focused solely on the individual and their sexual development and declared that  personality development was completed during adolescence. 

Comparatively, Erikson’s stages and their focus on social interaction as a key factor in the individual’s development are hailed as a more realistic framework than Freud’s. Erikson’s stages also cover the entirety of a human lifespan, from birth to death. The idea that development itself is a lifelong process has proven more popular and useful as opposed to seeing it as restricted just to the initial years of human life. It especially got traction as a result of being among the first of developmental theories to acknowledge and incorporate this. 

Over the years, however, the theory has also been the subject of some criticism. Its focus on defined stages is its most criticized aspect. While it may provide some form of workable structure for the progress of human development, each of the elements described have a potential to develop at stages different from those that they have been assigned to. The stage of identity vs. role confusion, in particular, has frequently proven to not be as defined in real life. The development of an identity may begin earlier than stated in theory or far later in life. Several times, the process of identity formation begins anew at various different points in life. Individuals experience vastly different progressions through the stages, and the idea that the development of the virtues during stages that are not assigned to them is impossible or incredibly difficult has been shown to be false.

Another aspect of the theory that has been heavily criticized is its vagueness. While it does describe the nature of the conflicts at each stage, it does not provide the details of all that is required for the individual to successfully complete the development at each level. This becomes especially relevant in light of cultural differences, as different cultures traditionally have different benchmarks to define the course of development. Some critics believe that Erikson’s stages are, in fact, not universal and primarily apply to Western industrialized societies.

However, even with its various caveats, Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development continue to remain foundational to the field of developmental psychology. The concepts it has put forth are regarded as instrumental to understanding human growth.

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