ALU
Let me start off with some background information of the ALU. The Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) is a digital circuit which performs arithmetic and logic operations. It does basic arithmetic such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The ALU also has the ability to do logic operations, such as OR, AND, NOT, and many others. The ALU is what does most of the operations that a Central Processing Unit (CPU) does. Due to the ALU’s ability to do these tasks, the ALU is considered as the cornerstone of the CPU. Now that we have gone over the background information on the ALU, let me go into describing the processing and interdependencies of the ALU.
1. First of all, in modern computers, there are three parts in a CPU,
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An example of how this works is by adding 2 + 3 into the ALU. Us humans can see that it is simply 2 + 3. However, since computers use binary code, it sees 10 + 11 (Barret, 2016). Then when the computer adds it up, it gives an answer of 101, which the computer translates to our language to 5. The ALU uses multiple gates to give out the answer of 5. It sounds complicated, since the CPU uses binary code, but the ALU has the ability to do millions of these operations in less than a second.
Instruction Decoder
Let me start again with background information. An instructional decoder is a circuit that interprets the value of the input and then determines which part of the output is going to be activated. This is very closely linked to the ALU because it takes the logic gates and determines the output of the gates. Due to this, the instruction decoder is one of the fundamental parts of a CPU, just like the ALU.
1. First of all, let me use the same example that I used in the ALU about 2+3. So, when the CPU receives this input as 10 + 11, and the Instruction Decoder gives the correct activation of 101, which translates to 5.
2. Secondly, to be more specific, the Instruction register op-code is given to the Instruction Decoder and the Instruction Decoder give the activation of which output to
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A clock in a computer is kept by a master clock which delivers alternating signals. The clock phase has two phases, a tick and a tock. The tick tock phase is represented by a binary signal. The signal is from the hardware’s circuitry and it is simultaneously broadcasted to all the sequential chips in the computer. The counter is a sequential chip that has an integer that increments every time unit that goes by. As expected, the counter is an extremely important part in digital architectures. In logic programs, a counter can be implemented, which will add a constant. So you can manipulate the standard register (Nisan & Schocken, 2005). It is located in the control unit of the computer. The program counter tells the control unit the instructions it receives from the RAM. So it connects the Control Unit to the
Processor (CPU) – The processor, also known as the Central Processing Unit runs the operating system and other applications. It is constantly receiving data from the user or other active software. The data is then processed and then an output is produced which either will be displayed on screen or stored by an application.
The operon is a set of coding regions of DNA clustered together that includes structural genes and it is under the control of a single regulatory region. The operator regulates transcription, which is a repressor protein. When the operator binds to a segment of the regulatory region, transcription is shut down.
The Ternary Software organization is the most leading software development company that has grown in over $2 million in annual revenue. Which make it’s one of the 50th fastest growing companies in Philadelphia for the past seven years (Robertson, 2005). The reason why this company is so successful is due to the organizational structure the CEO and founder Brian Robertson uses which is sociocracy.
I will begin by providing a brief overview of the thought experiment and how Searle derives his argument. Imagine there is someone in a room, say Searle himself, and he has a rulebook that explains what to write when he sees certain Chinese symbols. On the other side of the room is a Chinese speaker who writes Searle a note. After Searle receives the message, he must respond—he uses the rulebook to write a perfectly coherent response back to the actual Chinese speaker. From an objective perspective, you would not say that Searle is actually able to write in Chinese fluently—he does not understand Chinese, he only knows how to compute symbols. Searle argues that this is exactly what happens if a computer where to respond to the note in Chinese. He claims that computers are only able to compute information without actually being able to understand the information they are computing. This fails the first premise of strong AI. It also fails the second premise of strong AI because even if a computer were capable of understanding the communication it is having in Chinese, it would not be able to explain how this understanding occurs.
In other words, it is measured in seconds, minutes, hours and so on. And we use devices and machines that tell us the time so we don’t get to interviews or school late. One particular example is a clock. We have clocks everywhere in the United States and the man to thank is Benjamin Banneker. Benjamin created America’s first clock in 1761. He started working on the invention ever since he was introduced to Josef Levi. The first time Benjamin met Josef was drawn by and fascinated by his watch that he was wearing so much that he hounded him down with all these questions about it. As Josef left, he decided to give Banneker the watch as a parting gift. Being that Benjamin is an inquisitive young man, he kept on dismantling and re-assembling the watch, studying the workings of it. He decided to build a wooden clock afterwards. Benjamin had made all the parts, big and small, by his hands very meticulously. All this hard work and concentration had paid off in the end because he was able to successfully construct a fully working clock that had lasted for at least three whole decades, keeping the time
Computers are machines that take syntactical information only and then function based on a program made from syntactical information. They cannot change the function of that program unless formally stated to through more information. That is inherently different from a human mind, in that a computer never takes semantic information into account when it comes to its programming. Searle’s formal argument thus amounts to that brains cause minds. Semantics cannot be derived from syntax alone. Computers are defined by a formal structure, in other words, a syntactical structure. Finally, minds have semantic content. The argument then concludes that the way the mind functions in the brain cannot be likened to running a program in a computer, and programs themselves are insufficient to give a system thought. (Searle, p.682) In conclusion, a computer cannot think and the view of strong AI is false. Further evidence for this argument is provided in Searle’s Chinese Room thought-experiment. The Chinese Room states that I, who does not know Chinese, am locked in a room that has several baskets filled with Chinese symbols. Also in that room is a rulebook that specifies the various manipulations of the symbols purely based on their syntax, not their semantics. For example, a rule might say move the squiggly
The Devil’s Arithmetic is a book about a girl named Hannah Stern who finds herself thrown back to 1942, during the holocaust. She learns what it was like when her aunt and grandfather, as they too were in the camps. If you want to teach children about humanity’s single greatest atrocity, then The Devil’s Arithmetic is the best book for you to teach.
Then transcription follows, allowing for the copying of a gene resulting in a synthesized RNA copy. The first resulting copy of this is a messenger RNA (mRNA). The
John Searle is an American philosopher who is best known for his thought experiment on The Chinese Room Argument. This argument is used in order to show that computers cannot process what they comprehend and that what computers do does not explain human understanding. The question of “Do computers have the ability to think?” is a very conflicting argument that causes a lot of debate between philosophers in the study of Artificial Intelligence—a belief that machines can imitate human performance— and philosophers in the Study of Mind, who study the correlation between the mind and the physical world. Searle concludes that a computer cannot simply understand a language just by applying a computer program to it and that in order for it to fully comprehend the language the computer needs to identify syntax and semantics.
John Searle formulated the Chinese Room Argument in the early 80’s as an attempt to prove that computers are not cognitive operating systems. In short though the immergence of artificial and computational systems has rapidly increased the infinite possibility of knowledge, Searle uses the Chinese room argument to shown that computers are not cognitively independent.
The traditional notion that seeks to compare human minds, with all its intricacies and biochemical functions, to that of artificially programmed digital computers, is self-defeating and it should be discredited in dialogs regarding the theory of artificial intelligence. This traditional notion is akin to comparing, in crude terms, cars and aeroplanes or ice cream and cream cheese. Human mental states are caused by various behaviours of elements in the brain, and these behaviours in are adjudged by the biochemical composition of our brains, which are responsible for our thoughts and functions. When we discuss mental states of systems it is important to distinguish between human brains and that of any natural or artificial organisms which is said to have central processing systems (i.e. brains of chimpanzees, microchips etc.). Although various similarities may exist between those systems in terms of functions and behaviourism, the intrinsic intentionality within those systems differ extensively. Although it may not be possible to prove that whether or not mental states exist at all in systems other than our own, in this paper I will strive to present arguments that a machine that computes and responds to inputs does indeed have a state of mind, but one that does not necessarily result in a form of mentality. This paper will discuss how the states and intentionality of digital computers are different from the states of human brains and yet they are indeed states of a mind resulting from various functions in their central processing systems.
Compilers collect and reorganize (compile) all the instructions in a given set of source code to produce object code. Object code is often the same as or similar to a computer's machine code. If the object code is the same as the machine language, the computer can run the program immediately after the compiler produces its translation. If the object code is not in machine language, other programs—such as assemblers, binders, linkers, and loaders—finish the translation.
It’s prime role is to process data with speed once it has received instruction. A microprocessor is generally advertised by the speed of the microprocessor in gigahertz. Some of the most popular chips are known as the Pentium or Intel-Core. When purchasing a computer, the microprocessor is one of the main essentials to review before selecting your computer. The faster the microprocessor, the faster your data will process, when navigating through the software.
Mathematical logic is something that has been around for a very long time. Centuries Ago Greek and other logicians tried to make sense out of mathematical proofs. As time went on other people tried to do the same thing but using only symbols and variables. But I will get into detail about that a little later. There is also something called set theory, which is related with this. In mathematical logic a lot of terms are used such as axiom and proofs. A lot of things in math can be proven, but there are still some things that will probably always remain theories or ideas.
The internal parts of computers are very easy to recognize, once they are labeled. We will start by opening the case into the computer. Before opening the case don’t forget to have the computer turned off and unplugged, we don’t want to fry the computer parts. Once inside, we have a look around, and see a lot of parts that are unrecognizable to us. We will start from a top to bottom process of labeling parts. First look towards the bottom the big green board that everything else lies on is called the motherboard. A motherboard acts like the arteries of a human taking the blood all over allowing the blood places to travel, except the motherboard does this with electrical signals. The motherboard has three cards on it; they are the graphics card, sound card, and modem. They act like the voice, the eyes and the mouth of a human. You can tell the difference between them by how they connect in the back of the computer. The graphics card has a prong plug in, the sound card has a place where speaker plugs can go and modems have a place where you can put your phone line. Next to the left of the cards we see there is a little chip with a fan on top, this is the processor. The processor acts like the heart of a human sending blood all over the body, but instead of blood the processor sends electrical signals. Straight above the processor in the little slot is the hard drive. The hard drive acts kind of like the brain of the whole computer, by storing information on it and sending and receiving electrical signals. Finally we have the cd-rom. This is located above the hard drive. The cd-rom is the mouth of the human. But the cd-rom takes in data instead of food. Next on the motherboard is three little chips, sitting next to the processor, these are called Random Access Memory, or RAM. The ram acts like the quick storage in the brain it remembers the stuff that you are working on right then.