The protozoan parasite Trypanosoma Brucei is the caused of Human African Trypanosomiasis, also known as HAT or sleeping sickness. The two subspecies of protozoa that caused the sleeping sickness are T.b gambiense and T.b rhodesiene. The T.b gambiense parasites responsible for more than 95% of the cases and with over 60 million people are at risk and more than 50,000 infected (1). The parasites are transmitting by the tsetse flies. These flies founded mostly on the Africa continent South of Sahara. There are about 29-31 species of tsetse flies, but only 6 are recognized. The inflected fly carried the parasite and injected to the human host. The parasite lives within the bloodstream of human host then migrates to other areas such as the lymph nodes, spleen and spinal fluid, which results in fever, muscle aches and fatigue (2). When left untreated, it will evolves to the second stage in which the parasite invade the brain that caused mental deterioration and eventually dead (2). Currently there are no vaccines available. The trypanosomes are able to evade the host immune system due to their high degree of antigenic variation. The only available source for current treatment and control of the Infection is chemotherapy. The only drugs available for chemotherapy treatment are suramin, pentamidine, melarsopol and eflornithine. The Vinyl sulfones are also considered be a potential drug in the future because of the properties that select cysteine protease over serine. When infected animal bitten by the tsetse fly, there were different forms of parasite in the bloodstream (3). The slender form parasite replicate asexual and the non-replicating parasite is short and stumpy form (3). The slender form parasites are promptly killed by prot... ... middle of paper ... ... to the active site of the enzyme and can be displaced by the increased of substrate concentrations.(5) The noncompetitive inhibitors bind independently to the substrate and enzyme. The cysteine proteases are predominant in mammals and also important to the survival of the parasites. They rely on the clan CA family throughout their life cycle, which is very essential for future potential drugs. The clan CA cysteine proteases are promising targets for the design of antiparasitic drugs that contain lower toxicity for human. The new candidate can be very potential for future antiparasitic drug is vinyl sulfones. (5) The selective for cysteine proteases over serine and other enzymes. Peptidyl aldehydes and diazomethyl ketone are other potential agents that exhibit potent activity against the enzyme that had been proven to inhibit trypanosome proliferation in blood
Meanwhile, a study made by Palmer found that inhaled antibiotics used as adjunct to systemic antibiotic therapy has proven to improve the clinical outcome of patients with MDR VAP (6). The study also showed a direct relationship between antibiotic resistance with the se of systematic antibiotics. Aerosolized antibiotic used in this study that are proven to be effective are: amikacin, colistin, ceftazidime, gentamicin, tobramycin, sisomycin, and yancomycin.
Treatment: Chemotherapy is on treatment method. Most infected people benefit from the treatments. To of the best drugs for treatment are Praziquantel and Oxamniquine. The side effects are mild and transient, some of then are as followed:
this is the prepatent period. The worms then reside in the heart, lungs, and associated blood vessels. The worms begin to mate and release microfilaria into the blood stream. When a mosquito bites an infected dog it takes in some of the microfilaria in the blood. After 10 to 30 days there is larvae in the mosquito’s salivary gland which can then be passed on to the next dog the mosquito bites.
This parasite is spread through the bite of sandflies. There are three different types of infections and they each show varying degrees of severity. The cutaneous form produces mild skin ulcers, mucocutaneous produces ulcers in the mouth and nose, and the visceral form of the disease starts with skin ulcers and then fever, low red blood cell count, and an enlarged spleen and liver. The parasite is detected by a microscope and visceral can also be found by doing blood tests. 12 million people are in infected in 98 different countries and 2 million new cases are found every year. The disease also kills around 20 to 50 thousand people a year.
2. The female mosquito bites an infected animal, then carries their offspring, which are called Microfilariae, to your dog. Administration, Animal and Veterinary 3. Once your dog is infected with the parasitic worm, the mosquito bites the next dog and the cycle continues. Administration, Animal and Veterinary 4.
Every disease should have a treatment. Lyme disease has many treatments. Antibiotic drugs such as doxycline, amoxicillin, penicillin, and erythromycin are treatments for Lyme disease. There is a new vaccine for the disease. Its name is LYMErix TM.
Enzymes are very specific in nature, which helps them in reactions. When an enzyme recognizes its specific substrate, the enzyme binds to the substrate in a region called the active site which is made of amino acids. Once the substrate binds, the enzyme changes its shape slightly to make an even tighter fit around the substrate, This is called induced fit and it allows for the enzyme to catalyze the reaction more easily. Another factor contributing to catalyses is the amount of substrate present; the more substrate molecules available, the more often they bind the active site. Once all of the enzyme's active sites are occupied by substrate, the enzyme is saturated ( Campbell 99). Enzyme's have optimal conditions under which they perform. These include temperature, pH, and salt concentration, amongst others. In this lab we only focused on pH and temperature. Each enzyme is specific to a certain optimal temperature and pH. When conditions are favorable, the reaction takes place at a faster rate, allowing for more substrates to collide with active sites of enzymes. However, if conditions get too extreme, the enzyme...
Several types of mosquitos have been identified as the vector and intermediate host of dirofilaria immitis, including Culex pipiens, Aedes albopictus, Anopheles maculipenis, and Coquilletidia richiardii, allowing the parasite to mature to an infective stage within the mosquito to then infect new hosts via their bite (6). Climate change and urbanization have allowed mosquitos to expand their territory, while global transport of animals has enabled the parasite to infect mosquitos in previously heartworm free areas (5). Under normal circumstances the development of the heartworm larvae within the mosquito is arrested below 57°F limiting the time of infections to the summer month (5). However, in addition to providing irrigation systems as habitat for mosquitos urbanized areas act as heat island extending the time frame of possible dirofilaria immitis transmission significantly (5). As can be seen if figure 1, showing the geographical distribution of heartworm incidents in the U.S. in 2007 , areas with hot and humid climate have the highest number of heartworm infections as they provide favorable co...
Non – competitive inhibitors change the globular shape of an enzyme so that a enzyme-substrate complexes can’t form meaning a lower optimum rate of reaction. Enzymes in Medicine = == ==
Also changes in pH affect the charges on the amino acids. within the active site such that the enzyme will not be able to form. an enzyme substrate complex. The pH at which an enzyme catalyses a reaction at the maximum rate is called the optimum pH. This can vary considerably from pH 2 for pepsin. to pH 9 for pancreatic lipase.
of parasites do not kill the host from feeding, whereas a predator will kill it’
Microscopy will be performed on the patient to establish the type of malaria parasite and the number of these parasites in his/her blood sample. The blood sample can be extracted through a finger stab and then made into thick and thin films, and examined severally using a 100x oil immersion objective after staining them with Romanovsky stain (Warrell, Cox, & Firth, 2005, p. 734). By observation, the species of plasmodium can be seen and the number of them established
...n activator, or if it decreases the reaction rate it is an inhibitor. These molecules can regulate how fast the enzymes act. Any substance that tends to unfold the enzyme, such as an organic solvent or detergent, will act as an inhibitor. Some inhibitors act by reducing the -S-S- bridges that stabilize the enzyme's structure. Many inhibitors act by reacting with the side chains in or near the active site to change its shape or block it. Many well known poisons such as potassium-cyanide and curare are enzyme inhibitors that interfere with the active site of critical enzymes (Enzyme Catalysis).
Dian Fossey was so driven to protect mountain gorillas because they are an endangered species. Several threats have kept their population from thriving. One threat is disease, especially those which humans are equally as vulnerable to (Ferber, 2000). Tourists enjoy visiting the mountains of Rwanda to admire the gorillas and encourage their safety; however, humans help put mountain gorillas at risk. In 1999, a team of researchers with the Journal of Parasitology noted roundworm parasites in the feces of mountain gorillas (Ferber, 2000). These parasites normally have affected only humans through contaminated water. Early, in 1988, blood and tissue samples of several mountain gorillas indicated measles infection (Ferber, 2000).
The type seen throughout the human body involve enzyme catalysis. Enzymes are present throughout many key bodily processes and keep the body from malfunctioning. An enzyme catalyzes a reaction by having the substrate bind to its active site.2 This is known as the Lock and Key Theory, which states that only the correctly oriented key (substrate) fits into the key hole (active site) of the lock (enzyme).2 Although this theory makes sense, not all experimental data has explained this concept completely.2 Another theory to better accurately explain this catalysis is known as the Induced-Fit Theory.2 This theory explains how the substrate determines the final form of the enzyme and shows how it is moderately flexible.2 This more accurately explains why some substrates, although fit in the active site, do not react because the enzyme was too distorted.2 Enzymes and substrates only react when perfectly aligned and have the same