Ribonucleic acid is a large part of the modern world as RNA (Ribonucleic acid) is one of the major macromolecules which are known for playing an essential role in all known forms of life. The most common function of RNA is that it is a copy of DNA and is used to create proteins and other organic compounds. To produce a certain protein, it activates the area of DNA that codes for a specific protein needed. Thus it replicates that section of DNA in the form of messenger RNA. Ribosomes are then used to translate the genetic code found on the section that is coding for a particular protein. RNA can control how much protein is made but also when it is made.
Due to the macromolecular structure of RNA, it has been discovered to have the ability to
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Proteins were believed to be the only molecules able to create structures to catalyse reactions within life. Until Ribozymes were discovered; RNAs that hold the ability to catalyse reactions. During the 1960’s this theory was suggested by Francis Crick (1968) but not proved. Until during the early 1980s, Thomas Cech (1986) and others undertook research to prove the theory that RNA can act as an enzyme. He found that RNA also had the ability splice …show more content…
The nucleotides bonded, assembled and sequenced spontaneously to eventually forming a chain replicating a RNA molecule with the characters of a catalyst. The RNAs ability to splice itself and replicate lead to the belief that it can replicate and increase numbers and variations. The RNA molecules use mutations and recombination to explore new niches and evolve in self-replicating patterns. The RNA was believed to use its catalytic properties and began to synthesize proteins. RNA bonded to activated amino acids and then by arranged them according to the template on the RNA molecules. Some of these templates used the sequences found in the ribozymes or the ribosomal RNA found in the Ribosomes. This process then led to the manufacture of proteins and protein enzymes. However, the argument arises as to what cause the nucleotide precursors to react together to form sequences and patterns that create the RNA
Miller, Kenneth R. and Joseph S. Levine. “Chapter 12: DNA and RNA.” Biology. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc., 2002. Print.
In order to do this a polymer of DNA “unzips” into its two strands, a coding strand (left strand) and a template strand (right strand). Nucleotides of a molecule known as mRNA (messenger RNA) then temporarily bonds to the template strand and join together in the same way as nucleotides of DNA. Messenger RNA has a similar structure to that of DNA only it is single stranded. Like DNA, mRNA is made up of nucleotides again consisting of a phosphate, a sugar, and an organic nitrogenous base. However, unlike in DNA, the sugar in a nucleotide of mRNA is different (Ribose) and the nitrogenous base Thymine is replaced by a new base found in RNA known as Uracil (U)3b and like Thymine can only bond to its complimentary base Adenine. As a result of how it bonds to the DNA’s template strand, the mRNA strand formed is almost identical to the coding strand of DNA apart from these
These discoveries about the structure of DNA allowed scientists to explore the genome and develop a stronger understanding of genes. Within a decade of its discovery, other scientists had identified the genes responsible for specific diseases and traits. The discovery of the structure of DNA created a basis for ...
The study of nucleic acids has now become a fruitful and dynamic scientific enterprise. Nucleic acids are of unique importance in biological systems. Genes are made up of deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA, and each gene is a linear segment, or polymer, of a long DNA molecule. A DNA polymer, or DNA oligonucleotide, contains a linear arrangement of subunits called nucleotides. There are four types of nucleotides. Each nucleotide has three components; a phosphate group, a sugar and a base that contains nitrogen within its structure. The sugar moiety in DNA oligonucleotides is always dexoyribose, and there are four alternative bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). The phosphate groups and the deoxyribose sugars form the backbone of each DNA stand. The bases are joined to the deoxyribose sugar and stick out to the side. Both oligomers, DNA and RNA, consist of 5’->3’ phosphodiester-linked nucleotide units that are composed of a 2’-deoxy-D-ribose (DNA) or D-ribose (RNA) in their furanose forms and a heteroaromatic nucleobase (A, T, G, and C; A, U, G, C), and the resulting oligonucleotide chain is composed of a polar, negatively charged sugar-phosphate backbone and an array of hydrophobic nucleobases. The amphiphilic nature of these polymers dictates the assembly and maintenance of secondary and tertiary structures the oligonucleotides can form. In the DNA duplex structure, genetic information is stored as a linear nucleotide code. This code can be accessed and replicated. RNA, or ribonucleic acid, is another structurally related essential biopolymer. RNA differs from DNA in having the sugar ribose in place of the deoxyribos...
Every single living organism has deoxyribonucleic acid, but their cells vary. Some viruses use RNA though. The deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, found in organisms contain all the instructions necessary for creating different proteins that have different functions, but the molecule cannot leave the nucleus; this is where ribonucleic acid, or RNA, comes into play (Hall, 7). Deoxyribonucleic acid has multiple different components that come together in a structure that differs to the structure of ribonucleic acid (Hall, 9). Ribonucleic acid is very versatile with its build and functions. In the lives of DNA and RNA, each goes through processes known as replication, translation, meiosis and mitosis (Hall, 16, 18). During one of these processes, mutations can occur; one of these mutations can be the cause of oncogenic viruses (Hall, 53). RNA is an essential molecule that deals with coding, decoding, regulation and expression of genes (Epigenetics Modifications and Viral Infections, 2007-2014). When it comes down to epigenetic alterations in oncogenic viruses, it leads to the discovery of how viruses can infect our cells through inheritance such as some cancers. Deoxyribose and ribose are two nucleic acids that provide clues in the epigenetic alterations in early oncogenic viruses.
What has to happen for a gene to be transcribed? The enzyme RNA polymerase, which makes a new RNA molecule from a DNA template, must attach to the DNA of the gene. It attaches at a spot called the promoter.
during RNAi. RNA interference is now applied in many forms of biological science from, Physiology to Biotechnology.
This is made possible by the use of enzymes. Enzymes essentially work within the cells and their ability determined as a result of their specificity brought about by the shapes from the amino acid sequences (Daniel and Danson 2740).
According to the theory of evolution, approximately 3.8 billion years ago some chemicals accidentally structured themselves into a self-replicating molecule. This beginning spark of life was the ancestor of every living thing we see today. Through the processes of mutation and natural selection, that simplest life form, has been shaped into every living species.
Distinct characteristics are not only an end result of the DNA sequence but also of the cell’s internal system of expression orchestrated by different proteins and RNAs present at a given time. DNA encodes for many possible characteristics, but different types of RNA aided by specialized proteins sometimes with external signals express the needed genes. Control of gene expression is of vital importance for an eukaryote’s survival such as the ability of switching genes on/off in accordance with the changes in the environment (Campbell and Reece, 2008). Of a cell’s entire genome, only 15% will be expressed, and in multicellular organisms the genes active will vary according to their specialization. (Fletcher, Ivor & Winter, 2007).
Discoveries in DNA, cell biology, evolution, and biotechnology have been among the major achievements in biology over the past 200 years, with accelerated discoveries and insight’s over the last 50 years. Consider the progress we have made in these areas of human knowledge. Present at least three of the discoveries you find to be the most important and describe their significance to society, health, and the culture of modern life. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a self-replicating molecule or material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent in chromosomes. It encodes the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and many viruses.
One argument that supports the panspermia theory is the emergence of life soon after the heavy bombardment period of earth, between 4 and 3.8 billion years ago. During this period, researchers believe the Earth endured an extended and very powerful series of meteor showers. However, the earliest evidence for life on Earth suggests it was present some 3.83 billi...
Protein synthesis is one of the most fundamental biological processes. To start off, a protein is made in a ribosome. There are many cellular mechanisms involved with protein synthesis. Before the process of protein synthesis can be described, a person must know what proteins are made out of. There are four basic levels of protein organization. The first is primary structure, followed by secondary structure, then tertiary structure, and the last level is quaternary structure. Once someone understands the makeup of a protein, they can then begin to learn how elements can combine and go from genes to protein. There are two main processes that occur during protein synthesis, or peptide formation. One is transcription and the other is translation. Although these biological processes slightly differ for eukaryotes and prokaryotes, they are the basic mechanisms for which proteins are formed in all living organisms.
Francis Crick, co-discoverer of DNA, has said that “the origin of life appears to be almost a miracle, so many are the conditions which would have to be satisfied to get it going” (Horgan 27).2 Noted evolutionary astronomer Frederick Hoyle has described the chances of life having evolved from nonlife to be about as likely as the chances that “a tornado sweeping through a junkyard might assemble a Boeing 747 from the materials therein” (Johnson 106). Why do respected scientists doubt what textbooks teach as fact? It would appear that these scientists know something that current theories describing the origin of life fail to explain. While current theories describe scenarios in which genetic material such as RNA becomes entrapped in a protective cell membrane as a likely recipe for the formation of life, they generally do not focus on the difficulties of forming and concentrating all of these components in the first place.3 To clarify, current theories suffer from what I call the “cookbook mentality.
Some other theories suggest that amino acids came from comets. Other scientists believe that genes were the first living organisms, while others believe simple RNA was the first molecule on earth. Recent and Current human evolution There has been many slight changes in the human species since it came into existence. The changes have not been as dramatic since the situation today does not suit a new species of human. Some of the changes are worldwide and some are regional.