In nature we are given the first meridian of latitude along the equator, where the sun moves from East to West directly overhead. We can then understand points north and south of this line, allowing us to set latitude’s across the planet until they meet an end at the south or north poles. Longitude however, is a man-made construct and has roots as far back as ancient Greek mapmakers. In essence, it is an arbitrary set of lines that were standardized as a result of debate by influential powers of the 19th century. Since this time, it has been used as an unvarying tool for charts, maps and time keeping throughout the world. Prior to the implementation of a uniform meridian, many countries had a considerable need to calculate longitude, specifically while at sea. Having a consistent fixed system of longitude for maps and time keeping would decrease the dangers for sailors lacking an accurate point of reference on the water.
Prior to 17th century, observatories were without telescopes, with Tycho Brahe’s Uraniborg (Castle of the Heavens) from the 1570’s being considered the greatest of the pre-telescopic. Copernicus’ heliocentric theory of the universe, the birth of the Academies in France and the Royal Society in England and other advances in scientific theory set the stage for significant advancements in the science of astronomy. Sea-faring nations began to note the distinct advantages of astronomy in providing an accurate mapping of the stars. As a result of this and the evolution of astronomical theory, the 17th century saw the building of two important observatories, in the cities of Paris and Greenwich, outside of London. These observatories would play a role in the establishment of a prime meridian for the world, and...
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Wolf, A. A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy in the 16th and 17th Centuries. Vol. 2. New York: Harper, 1959.
Over the next 50 years Copernicus’s book would slowly make its way across Europe. In 1566 a second edition was published without the false preface. The church denounced the book and Copernicus for “going against the bible”, but eventually began to accept it and allow it to be taught. Copernicus’s work was profound and changed the direction of Astronomy. It dared to challenge the notion that the Earth was the center of the universe, and that heavenly matter was unchanging and perfect. Over the next several hundred years Brahe would observe, Kepler and Newton would pour over the numbers and they would find the Copernicus’s model had underlying truths, some flaws, but with tweaking and vigilant observations of the celestial motions it would be the basis that lead them to the model we know today. Bringing forth what we know as the Copernican Revolution.
Like the Arabs, the Europeans sometimes let their religion come between them and the truth. The best example of this is what Boorstin refers to as the “Great Interruption,” a time in the Middle Ages where theological, rather than geographical, accuracy was prioritized in mapmaking. Rather than continuing the work of Ptolemy and refining his rectangular coordinate system, cartographers “spent their energies embroidering a neat, theologically appealing picture of what was already known, or was supposed to be known.” (Boorstin, 100) Maps depicted the world as a circular disc divided into three parts, the three parts being the continents of Asia, Africa, and Europe, separated by a T-shaped flow of water. Jerusalem was always in the center of the maps; the justification came from a verse in Ezekiel saying that God had placed Jerusalem in the midst of the nations, which was interpreted literally. Allowing Christian dogma to determine the shape of the earth was a major failing in Boorstin’s eyes; nevertheless, the episode was only an “interruption,” and Europe eventually resumed discovery. Firstly, Boorstin credits the west for the modern clock and calendar. Although earlier versions of clocks from other parts of the world are mentioned, the author focuses primarily on the contributions of westerners to its development. When missionary
1867.” OAH Magazine of History. Issue 2 (2005): p. 1. Galileo. Web. 10 February. 2014.
...centrated on Britain. In large measure this is as a result of the impact of one individual, Robert K. Merton, and his study, Science, Technology and Society in Seventeenth Century England. In some ways, Merton is as fundamental to the historiography of the social supports of this era. Merton's research developed the tradition of Max Weber, R. H. Tawny, and others, to use statistical methods to data compiled from the Dictionary of National Biography and other sources for what became known as the Merton thesis: yet there is a clear relationship between the development of scientific activity in 17th Century Britain and the social and religious existence of Puritanism. Since the emergence of this study, a series of scholarly studies has appeared concentrating on the relationship among science, religion, society, politics, ideology, and organizations (Hatch, Undated).
The first record of the movement of the planets was produced by Nicolaus Copernicus. He proposed that the earth was the center of everything, which the term is called geocentric. Kepler challenged the theory that the sun was the center of the earth and proposed that the sun was the center of everything; this term is referred to as heliocentric. Kepler’s heliocentric theory was accepted by most people and is accepted in today’s society. One of Kepler’s friends was a famous person named Galileo. Galileo is known for improving the design and the magnification of the telescope. With improvement of the telescope Galileo could describe the craters of the moon and the moons of Jupiter. Galileo also created the number for acceleration of all free falling objects as 9.8 meters per second. Galileo’s and Kepler’s theories were not approved by all people. Their theories contradicted verses in the bible, so the protestant church was extremely skeptical of both Galileo and Kepler’s
Scholarly Life in the 16th-century After reading On The Revolutions Of The Heavenly Spheres, Nicolaus Copernicus's dedication to Pope Paul III, it can be gathered that the life of a scholar was something of a mission, a crusade if you will, to achieve knowledge of the unknown. Like a crusade, scholarly life contained hardships but also achievements and even more importantly and sometimes most strived for, notoriety. Scholarly life in the 16th -century was no simple task, but a task that took much drive and ambition, and after that, a task that underwent much scrutiny from disapproving colleagues as well as outsiders.
2, Alter Dinsmore, Cleminshaw H. Clarence, Philips G John. Pictorial Astronomy. United States: Sidney Feinberg, 1963.
Later after Copernicus came Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei, who confirmed some of Copernicus’ observations. Kepler provided concise evidence of planetary motion regarding their path around the s...
Historians and archeologists have found physical evidence that ancient civilizations had an active interest it the apparent motion of the celestial objects. Stonehenge in England, The Bighorn Medicine Wheel in the Unit...
The invention of the GPS started with Dr. Ivan Getting leaving his position at Raytheon Company, and armed with the knowledge of what was at the time the most advanced navigational technology in the world, they began developing the Global Positioning System. He, Roger L. Easton, and Bradford Parkison began in the 60’s with a constellation of 24 satellites (placed in six orbital planes) orbiting the earth at a very high altitude (about
Wolf, A. A History of Science, Technology and Philosophy in the 16th and 17th Centuries. Vol. 2. New York: Harper, 1959.
In his book, Repcheck recounts how a Catholic Church cleric invented a highly complicated theory of the heavens’ architecture. Copernicus made a breakthrough by solving a significant astronomical problem. Everybody except the astronomers had earlier accepted Aristotle’s concept that heavenly objects revolved around the earth in perfectly circular orbits. The astronomers were opposed to this notion since their calculations could not work according to it. Repcheck introduces Ptolemy who described a cosmos in which the earth positioned itself somewhat off-center and other heavenly bodies revolved in one circular orbit inside a second ideal circle at changeable speeds. Even though Ptolemy’s model was rather complicated, astronomers found it to be reasonable in their calculations. Astronomers were still using this new concept even 1500 years later. In this regard, the author starts to bring Copernicus into the picture.
The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were known as the Scientific Revolution. During these centuries, science was starting to answer many questions about the earth. Scientists all around the world were making their assumptions on how the universe worked. Nicolaus Copernicus was a Polish astronomer that also had a theory. The Copernican Theory changed many views and had a great effect on society.
Astronomy is a natural science focusing on the study of celestial objects such as moons, stars, planets, nebulae and galaxies. Astronomy is considered to be one of the oldest natural sciences; early civilizations throughout history such as the Babylonians, Egyptians and Greeks performed methodical observations of the sky. The Babylonians had different astronomical records regarding the position of the moon, sun and stars, on the other hand the Egyptians used astronomy to know the time and afterwards they developed a calendar based on the solar year. The following paper will focus on the ancient Greek astronomy, interestingly the origin of the word astronomy is Greek it comes from two words; astron meaning "star" and nemien refers to "to name". This paper will explain and highlight the methods used, famous figures and the achievements attained during the ancient Greek astronomy era.