Levels of Processing Theory
Depth of Analysis
Craik and Lockhart believed that depth is a critical concept for
levels of processing theory.
* The depth of processing of a stimulus has a substantial effect on
its memorability, i.e. how well it is remembered.
* Deeper levels of analysis produce more elaborate, longer lasting
and stronger memory traces than do shallow levels of analysis.
Craik (1973) defined depth as "the meaningfulness extracted from the
stimulus rather than in terms of the number of analyses performed upon
it". Rehearsal or repetition is not a form of deep processing because
it only involves a repeated "number of analyses", and not and
extraction of meaningfulness.
Craik and Tulving used semantic processing to represent deep
processing and the physical analysis to represent shallower
processing. As the theory would predict, participants remembered those
words that were deeply processed better than those processed
shallowly. The findings of Hyde and Jenkins (1973) also support this
theory.
Elaboration
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Craik and Tulving's study also looked at how the elaboration of
processing can lead to a greater recall. In a further experiment, the
participants were presented on each trial with a word and a sentence
containing a blank. They were then asked to decide whether the word
fitted into the uncompleted question. Recall was twice as high for
words accompanying complex sentences, suggesting that elaboration
benefits long term memory. There is a difference between elaboration
as in the complexity of the sentence, and the time spent on the task,
as in the phonemic proces...
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...ken at the very moment of the event and every detail
indelibly printed in memory. The emotional nature of such events
contributes to the way in which they are stored in memory. Brown and
Kulik suggested that flashbulb memories were distinctive because they
are both enduring and accurate. The concept of flashbulb memories
seems to contradict the notion that through processing in short term
store is needed for good long term memory, and to support the idea
that distinctiveness and emotional factors are important in memory.
Brown and Kulik suggested that a special neural mechanism might have
been responsible for flash bulb memories. Other psychologists have
suggested that flashbulb memories are so memorable because they are
repeated so often, on occasions when people recall these emotionally
significant lifetime events.
The special mechanism approach to flashlight memories was also introduced by R. Brown & Kulik, it stipulates that flashbulb memories are virtually literal representations of the what, how, and where of the original event (Schwartz, 2013). This mechanism works by encoding what happened in great detail. As a result, the flashbulb memory will be very strong and will remain in the memory (Schwartz, 2013). Strong emotions are the core of special mechanisms. To further explain, distinctiveness may be correlated with the critical triggering condition, experiences that produce strong emotional reactions may tend to be more distinctive than experiences that do not (Winograd & Nei...
Human memory is flexible and prone to suggestion. “Human memory, while remarkable in many ways, does not operate like a video camera” (Walker, 2013). In fact, human memory is quite the opposite of a video camera; it can be greatly influenced and even often distorted by interactions with its surroundings (Walker, 2013). Memory is separated into three different phases. The first phase is acquisition, which is when information is first entered into memory or the perception of an event (Samaha, 2011). The next phase is retention. Retention is the process of storing information during the period of time between the event and the recollection of a piece of information from that event (Samaha, 2011). The last stage is retrieval. Retrieval is recalling stored information about an event with the purpose of making an identification of a person in that event (Samaha, 2011).
The procedure is simple. On the computer screen, twelve words are revealed one word at a time in the form of a list. After the last word, a matrix of twelve words is shown. The matrix is a table of twelve words, some of which were on the list, some of which were not. Participants in the task chose which words they believe were on the list, using free recall to select words in any order. A new list begins when participants believe they have all of the correct words from the matrix. The cycle begins again. A list of twelve words are presented, a matrix appears after the twelfth word, and participants select words according to their memory of what was on the list. There are six lists in total, with no practice trials, however there are breaks in between to express the differences in each list.
Similarly, even when an individual’s attention is supposedly devoted to a target item, subsequent memory can suffer when the initial coding of the item takes place at shallow level. This effect has been suggested in studies examining the “depth of processing effect” (Cr...
In this essay I will argue that Rosenthal's Higher Order Thought Theory provides a possible account of conscious awareness, in doing so addresses and gets to solve the mind-body problem for that particular mental phenomenon.
The Effects of Levels of Processing on Memory PB1: Identify the aim of the research and state the experimental/alternative hypothesis/es. (credited in the report mark scheme) To show how different levels of processing affects the memory. “People who process information deeply (i.e. semantic processing) tend to remember more than those who process information shallowly (i.e. visual processing). ” PB2: Explain why a directional or non-directional experimental/alternative hypothesis/es has been selected. (I mark) I have used a directional experimental hypothesis because past research, such as that by Craik and Tulving (1975) has proved this. PB3:
Altogether this study has helped us learn more about the brain and memory. Learning is measured thorough when a student can reiterate the right answer to a question. In this study, students in one conditions learned forging language vocabulary words in standard example of recurrent study exam trials. In three other conditions, once a student had correctly formed the language item, it was constantly studied but dropped from further testing. Repeatedly tested but dropped from the further study or just dropped from both the study and also the test. The results reveal the critical part of retrieval practice in combining education and shows that even college students seem naive of the fact.
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Intelligence is commonly thought to decline as we get older, however this is a flawed belief. Some may argue that there are various cognitive processes that are associated with changes in the brain that do deteriorate with time, however there are also other brain areas that increase their activity in older age. I believe a person’s ability to perform certain tasks may become slower as they get older, but this doesn’t automatically mean that they are cognitively getting less intelligent. There are numerous ways in which intelligence can be defined, although it is commonly defined as general cognitive skills, this means that it is a mental ability involved in the capacity of learning, reasoning, perceiving relationships and analogies, understanding, facts, meanings, etc. (Dictionary definition). However as Raymond Cattell (1963) described ‘intelligence does not generally consist of only cognitive performance’. Cattell and Horns theory (1966) emphasises that intelligence is composed of a number of different abilities that interrelate to form the broad term of intelligence. The main two factors are fluid and crystallised intelligence.
Memory is the tool we use to learn and think. We all use memory in our everyday lives. Memory is the mental faculty of retaining and recalling past experiences. We all reassure ourselves that our memories are accurate and precise. Many people believe that they would be able to remember anything from the event and the different features of the situation. Yet, people don’t realize the fact that the more you think about a situation the more likely the story will change. Our memories are not a camcorder or a camera. Our memory tends to be very selective and reconstructive.
Level 4 describes the narrative self-consciousness, by which the function of language is essentially large. The narrative self-consciousness and functions of self-consciousness associate one another through language via inner or audible speech. The process of directing attention to the content allows for better remembrance and the verbalization of said same content will result in the same remembrance. (Talvitie & Tiitinen, 2006)
Introduction The study of the ways in which people affect, and are affected by others, is known as social psychology; a primary means by which people affect one another is through the medium of communication (Kruglanski and Higgins, 2007). At the heart of communication is the idea of shared meanings between one, or more people, however, communication is not simply a case of exchanging words; through the process of communication we create meanings and an understanding of what words and behaviours represent or imply (Ramaraju, 2012). Language acquisition forms a critical basis for a child’s development, and is an essential tool for communicating, building relationships with others, and learning (Brock and Rankin, 2008). This assignment probes early language acquisition in infants and children starting with typical child language acquisition.
The theory that has always interest me is the cognitive theory, pioneered by Jean Piaget. It is a theory based on the idea that an individual 's thought processes and the way those processes affect the person 's understanding of the world. Piaget 's cognitive theory determines how this understanding, and expectations it creates, affects the individual 's attitude, beliefs, and behavior. His theory on Cognitive Development in a nutshell explains the way biology influences how children conceptualize and deal with tasks at different stages while growing up. Piaget 's theory focuses more on how children 's behavior changes as they grow and how the children interact with their environment.
to spoken words and back but we can't listen to both at the same time.
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