The Structure of Early Greek Tragedy:
The Greek performances that dominated ancient theatre, while undeniably ground-breaking, were subject to an exacting dramatic structure. Consistently, Grecian tragedies began with the prologue, serving as a spoken explanation of the performance’s mythological background and preparing the audience for what they were to see. Following this prelude would be the parados, an “opening number” of sorts in which the chorus enters the orchestra while both singing and dancing. Subsequently, the alteration of episodes (spoken scenes between members of the chorus) and statisma (choral odes reflecting on what occurred in the episodes) would begin. These respective dramatic forms worked together to create a cohesive
When analyzing this theatrical procedure, one can see clearly the practicality of such an order. The conversion between episodes and statisma allowed early Grecian playwrights to convey the significance of their work to the audience in multiple forms. Arguably, having both spoken and sung dialogue would aid an audience of differential learners in initially grasping their attention and then keeping it. Furthermore, the sophisticated format of Greek tragedy provided an outline for aspiring playwrights, allowing for a more diverse group of creators and thusly, creations.
Aristotle and Western Theatre:
Aristotle’s influence on theatre, particularly tragedies, was analytical and calculated. While he intended to explore Grecian tragedy in terms of elements that evoked emotions within an audience, Aristotle inadvertently reshaped the genre as a whole. His “descriptive, not prescriptive” (Levine “Aristotle’s Poetics” 2) take on woeful drama allowed the audience to take from the
Commedia Dell’arte, to name one of this period’s breakthroughs, was a dramatic form that went on to develop genres such as pantomime and harlequin romance. This advancement, literally translating to “comedy of the profession” (Encyclopedia Britannica) emphasized the use of a company of actors on stage as its improvisational scenes relied on a group of stock characters to convey their stories. Thusly, in a revolutionary turn for the theatre business, women were permitted to participate in performances as actors, often depicting the female “young lover” (Commedia Dell’arte 3). This innovation was evidently important as it paved the way for generations of female performers to make their mark on dramatic arts. Moreover, these progressive artists were placed within groups of actors that would eventually evolve to become theatre’s first professional companies. Finally, the Italian renaissance popularized the use dialect in vernacular, allowing their scripts and written techniques to reach farther than any preceding dramatists and playwrights. With these translations came a diverse realm of interpretations for the scenarios and common soliloquies and thusly, a more diverse world of theatre. Commedia Dell’arte brought with it the practice of improvisation, a wholly new technique for its time (Encyclopedia Britannica) This practice of spontaneous theatre has since impacted modern music (i.e. rap
...ods come for the free drugs that he offers. Johnny is a man for whom we feel pride, shame and pity all at once but such a contradictory character would be unstable and unpredictable. Aristotle defines tragedy according to seven characteristics. These are that it is characterized by mimicry, it is serious, it expresses a full story of a relevant length, it contains rhythm and harmony, the rhythm and harmony occur in different combinations in different parts of the tragedy, it is performed not narrated and that it provokes feelings of pity and fear then purges these feelings through catharsis the purging of the emotions and emotional tensions. The composition of a tragedy consists of six segments. In order of relevance, these are plot, character, thought, diction, melody, and performance. For a comedy the ending must be merry. Instead Jerusalem ends in death.
If we seek to justify Shakespeare's King Lear as a tragedy by applying Arthur Miller's theory of tragedy and the tragic hero, then we might find Lear is not a great tragedy, and the character Lear is hardly passable for a tragic hero. However, if we take Aristotle's theory of tragedy to examine this play, it would fit much more neatly and easily. This is not because Aristotle prescribes using nobility for the subject of a tragedy, but, more importantly, because he emphasizes the purpose of tragedy -- to arouse pity and fear in the audience, and thus purge them of such emotions.
When discussing literature, most people would say that The Iliad is the first great tragedy. In literature, a tragedy is defined as a work in which the main character or protagonist encounters extreme loss, pain, and/or sadness. Perhaps one of the most memorable and absolutely tragic deaths that really crushes the main character, Achilleus, in this story is the death of Patroklos, Achilleus’ closest friend and ally. Toward the end of the epic, as the Achaians are being pushed back hard by the Trojan army, Patroklos dons Achilleus’ armor and goes to battle in his stead. And in a disastrous turn of events, Apollo, Euphorbos, and Hektor all have a hand in Patroklos’ death. So, we ask this question: who is responsible for the death of Patroklos?
Oedipus, by Sophocles, was written around 441 B.C. Sophocles’ story is considered a Greek tragedy. Aeschylus is the person who coined the term, but “it was Sophocles who brought it to perfection” (Struck). Oedipus is one of the most famous classical dramas, and it is because of Aristotle the story reached that status. Aristotle stated his opinions in his book Poetics, which made it popular (Thorburne 384). In the story, Oedipus displays hubris when he defies the gods and runs away from his true fate which leads to his downfall.
In Euripides’ tragic play, Medea, the playwright creates an undercurrent of chaos in the play upon asserting that, “the world’s great order [is being] reversed.” (Lawall, 651, line 408). The manipulation of the spectators’ emotions, which instills in them a sentiment of drama, is relative to this undertone of disorder, as opposed to being absolute. The central thesis suggests drama in the play as relative to the method of theatrical production. The three concepts of set, costumes, and acting, are tools which accentuate the drama of the play. Respectively, these three notions represent the appearance of drama on political, social, and moral levels. This essay will compare three different productions of Euripides’ melodrama, namely, the play as presented by the Jazzart Dance Theatre¹; the Culver City (California) Public Theatre²; and finally, the original ancient Greek production of the play, as it was scripted by Euripides.
Tragedies in the Greek and Renaissance theater were very effective in portraying the social and religious constraints that tainted society. Both playwrights, through the use of their ingenuity and vast literary knowledge were able to perfect and display such flawless spectacles. The differences and similarities between Greek tragedy and Renaissance tragedy, although vast, can be narrowed down to the audience. Greek and Renaissance theater targeted very different audiences that demanded a certain type of play in order to be entertained.
Myers, H. A. (1949). Aristotle's study of tragedy. Educational Theatre Journal, 1(2), 115. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1290192594?accountid=12085
Greek Tragedy Theater rose to its peak in Athens around the 5th century BCE. This history of the theater came from the citizens wanting to honor their gods with traditional stories, however, the tragedies were most often based off of early Greek mythology. These dramas were most likely written by one of the famous Greek authors, Aeschylus, Euripides, or Sophocles. According to The Ancient History Encyclopedia, tragedy plays were based on serious topics that taught a moral of right and wrong. An important part of every Greek tragedy was the incorporation of a tragic hero. In the famous play Oedipus the King, the writer, Sophocles, promotes added emphasis on this main character and their trials and hardships throughout the story.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C. believed that tragedy, as an imitation or mimesis of life as it could be, held more importance than history, which simply records the past. He considered that performance of a tragedy provided the perfect cathartic experience for an audience, leaving them spiritually purified and inspired. He felt spectators seeing and experiencing great hardship befall the play’s hero or heroine would achieve this emotional state and benefit from it.
A modern tragedy of today and a tragedy of ancient Greece are two very different concepts, but ironically, both are linked by many similarities. In “Poetics”, Aristotle defines and outlines tragedy for theatre in a way that displays his genius, but raises questions and creates controversy. Aristotle’s famous definition of tragedy states:
According to Aristotle, a tragedy must be an imitation of life in the form of a serious story that is complete in itself among many other things. Oedipus is often portrayed as the perfect example of what a tragedy should be in terms of Aristotle’s Poetics. Reason being that Oedipus seems to include correctly all of the concepts that Aristotle describes as inherent to dramatic tragedy. These elements include: the importance of plot, reversal and recognition, unity of time, the cathartic purging and evocation of pity and fear, the presence of a fatal flaw in the “hero”, and the use of law of probability.
The evolution of theatre conventions began with highly presentational Greek productions and changed through the Medieval and Elizabethan ages to the current conventions. Greek conventions included performances done on a mostly bare stage, the use of internal stage directions to indicate location, episodic play structure, and a chorus that served multiple functions including setting the overall mood, commenting on or explaining the action, and creating reflection intervals. Other conventions included an all-male cast, the “Three Actor Rule,” the presence of a tragic hero, and the plays typically served the purpose of teaching the public or making a political statement. Many of these conventions evolved to adapt to the time period of the performances.
In Aristotle’s book, Poetics, he defines tragedy as, “an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and possessing magnitude; in embellished language, each kind of which is used separately in the different parts; in the mode of action and not narrated; and effecting through pity and fear” (Aristotle 1149). Tragedy creates a cause and effect chain of actions that clearly gives the audience ideas of possible events. The six parts to Aristotle’s elements of tragedy are: Plot, character, language, thought, spectacle, and melody. According to Aristotle, the most important element is the plot. Aristotle writes in Poetics that, “It is not for the purpose of presenting their characters that the agents engage in action, but rather it is for the sake of their actions that they take on the characters they have” (Aristotle 1150). Plots should have a beginning, middle, and end that have a unity of actions throughout the play making it complete. In addition, the plot should be complex making it an effective tragedy. The second most important element is character. Characters...
Thespis was a Greek poet who is given credit for being the inventor of tragedy plays. He introduced an “actor” into choral performances, which had been exclusively for the chorus before Thespis. This had many effects such as: the singers were given breaks, and with actors the presentation became more heightened and dramatic. Thespis has written plays such as Contest of Pelias, Phorbas, Hiereis, Hitheoi, and Pentheus. The word Thespians, who are English speaking actors, comes from Thespis.
Tragedies have been written, told, and acted out for a number of years. Aristotle defined in his book, Poetics that a tragedy is to arouse the emotions of pity, fear, and finally a catharsis, or purging of emotions. A tragic play that perfectly completes this cycle of emotions is Oedipus the King by Sophocles. This play follows a king of the town of Thebes through his journey of the emotions of pity, fear, and finally a catharsis. It is a tale of a man who unknowingly kills his father and fathers the children of his mother as well. The audience is pulled into the play and experiences the plot along with Oedipus.