Golden Ass
Apuleius' Golden Ass, the only surviving novel of the Roman Empire, is a tale of a Greek nobleman devoting his life to the goddess Isis following his transformation to an ass and back. Although a work of fiction, the novel reveals a great deal about religion in Apuleius' society. This information, however, must be viewed with a critical eye. He incorporates stories from Greco-Roman mythology not to affirm their validity, but to reveal their commonness to society. Apuleius insults other religions that are not of the Pantheon with severe viciousness, while the general public may have been more open to them. In the end, he praises Isis and Osiris as the supreme gods while giving first hand account of their righteousness. Overall, Apuleius' view of religion cannot be trusted.
From the very start we see Apuleius using references to Roman myths as similes to everyday occurrences. When Fotis, the slave, enters his bedroom to make love to him, he remarks that "she stood, transformed into a living statue: the Love-goddess rising from the sea. The flushed hand with which she pretended to screen her mount of Venus showed that she was well aware of the resemblance; certainly it was not held there from modesty." He describes a slave girl trying to seduce him as Venus rising out of the sea. Some of this description may be a hyperbole for Lucius' love of Fotis. However, Apuleius goes beyond this by linking Fotis directly to Venus. Thus, the most beautiful goddess in the Pantheon is easily seen in a slave girl. Similarly, Thelyphron, when telling the story how members of a household attacked him, describes himself as feeling "like Adonis mauled by the wild boar, or Orpheus torn in pieces by the Thracian women." This...
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...ddess. To prove his point, Apuleius first discounts all other worships. Throughout the novel he describes things that happen to individuals in terms of the traditional Greco-Roman myths. He subtly chips away at the traditional Roman gods, avoiding a direct attack on the Pantheon because the vast majority of his audience believed in it. If he attacked them directly, he would surely not be considered credible. With the other religions, however, Apuleius reserves nothing. He declares religions of Asia Minor to be fraudulent and calls monotheistic religions "blasphemous." After questioning the other religions, Apuleius goes on to praise the worship of Isis. As a result, we the contemporary reader cannot infer too much about Roman religion from The Golden Ass.
Works Cited
Apuleius. The Golden Ass. Trans. Robert Graves. Noonday Press, 1998. ISBN 0-374-50532-2.
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how apuleius' golden ass, the only surviving roman empire novel, reveals a great deal about religion in his society.
- Analyzes how apuleius uses references to roman myths as similes to everyday occurrences.
- Analyzes how lucious takes on a more frontal assault towards the minor religions present in the roman empire at the time. he calls the eunuch priests that worship the syrian goddess frauds.
- Analyzes how pious frauds composed an all-purpose oracle for the goddess to deliver by their mouths, and used it to cheat people who came to consult her on all sorts of questions.
- Analyzes how apuleius discredits several cults in the empire as being money driven and simply not true. the public does not share lucius' distrust of the foreign goddess.
- Analyzes how the woman professed perfect scorn for the immortals and rejected all true religion in favor of a fantastic blasphemous cult of an 'only god.'
- Analyzes how apuleius' attack on the eunuch is more serious because of the reference to "only god," which could refer to christianity, judaism, or other monotheistic religions in the empire.
- Analyzes how apuleius' tone changes dramatically when describing the transformation back to a man with the aid of the goddess isis.
- Analyzes how apuleius tries to convince his readers, educated men of the roman empire and provinces, that the goddess isis is the one supreme goddess.
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- Religion and the Roman Empireanalytical essayThe Roman Empire is credited with many things due partially to their ability to share, spread, and adapt culture. Rome was successful because it both conquered and shared the fruits of conquest with the conquered. Religion was one part of the culture that demonstrated the tolerance of Romans. For example, at the time of Jesus’ birth, paganism could be divided into three spheres: the official state religion, the traditional cults of the hearth and countryside, and the new mystery religions from the East. Even though the official religion in the Roman Empire began as Pagan, it ended as Christianity when Emperor Theodosius declared it as the official religion in A.D. 380. The following examines two works of fiction that deal with religion during the Roman Empire.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that the roman empire was successful because it shared the fruits of conquest with the conquered. religion was one part of the culture that demonstrated the tolerance of romans.
- Analyzes apuleius' the golden ass, where lucius talks his lover into stealing him a potion that will temporarily turn him into an owl. he is dragged off by robbers before he can eat any roses.
- Opines that the high priest ordered all uninitiated persons to depart, invested them in a new linen garment and let them by the hand into the inner recesses of the sanctuary itself.
- Analyzes how the story of lucius underscores this point. he describes briefly the tasks he must accomplish during the ‘period of preparation’, but does not go into detail as to the initiation ceremony.
- Analyzes how the movie king arthur deals with roman religion. the movie is trying to portray lucius artorius castus, leader of a band of sarmatian knights, as the historical arthur.
- Analyzes how arthur leads his knights to rescue a prominent roman family and return the son safely to rome. they respect arthur's leadership and need discharge papers to safely pass through the roman territories.
- Analyzes how the patriarch of the roman family sentenced local pagans to be jailed, tortured or left for dead for heresy, angering both the knights and arthur.
- Analyzes how religion played an important role in the movie. arthur and his knights never argue over their respective religions. they are both tolerant of each others beliefs and their respect has been forged through the battles they have faced.
- Explains that the golden ass and king arthur are fictional stories that describe the culture and religions during the roman empire. the symbiotic relationship noted in marcus aurelius as he writes about the gods may explain why this tolerance existed.
- Opines that physicians have principles ready for the understanding of things divine and human, and for doing everything, even the smallest, while remembering the bond which unites the divine to one another.
- Opines that historians will continue to work to understand the religions of the roman empire. the truth will evolve as archeological evidence is discovered, new translations are formed, and the human race as a whole continues to better understand this important time in history.
1032 wordsRead More - Roman Medicine Essayargumentative essayAncient Roman mythology consisted of a combination of rituals, beliefs, and observances of supernatural occurrences. They were based heavily on the idea of Greek mythology. As legend has it, the gods resembled human figures but they were bigger stronger and much more beautiful than that of the ancient roman gods. Even though the Roman gods were not depicted to be as beautiful they still were thought of with high admiration by roman citizens. The roman’s paid homage to the gods, in doing so they expected protection, fertility, prosperity, and good health in return for their allegiance.
In this essay, the author
- Explains how the views of ancient romans on medicine and health were based on roman mythology as well as public health. the recognition of health, medicine, and religion attempted to demonstrate equality of life throughout the empire.
- Introduces mythology and its effect on the roman empire. the english word myth derives from the greek word muthos meaning a spoken word or written story.
- Explains that ancient roman mythology consisted of rituals, beliefs, and observances of supernatural occurrences. although the roman gods were not depicted to be as beautiful, they were thought of with high admiration by roman citizens.
- Explains that the roman medical system was also adopted from the greeks. the concept of roman medicine focused on hippocrates, the father of medicine.
- Explains romans' religious belief was polytheistic in origin. they believed that it was their duty and obligation to maintain good relations with the gods.
- Describes apollo as a roman deity born on the island of delos in cyclades to god and goddess zeus and leto. he is the twin brother of artemis who was considered to be goddess of forest and wild animals.
- Explains that aesculapius was raised by a centaur by the name of chiron, who passed his pharmaceutical knowledge of plants to him. the medical symbol that we see today is highly rooted from the greek/roman god.
- Explains that snakes were associated with healing during roman mythology. angitia was a goddess known by the marsi people of central italy as the "snake goddess".
- Explains that carna was a well-known deity in roman health. she brought strength to the physical body by helping keep the vital organs such as the heart, liver, and lungs healthy.
- Explains that the goddesses dea tertiana and quaratana embodied and protected roman citizens from fever and malaria. febris temples were established for people wanting to be cured.
- Explains that disease and disease management from the perspective of the roman government were geared toward the roman people and the environment. roman deities brought better health to the people who had fallen ill.
- Explains that the roman government retained an empirical focus on disease management. observation of roman soldiers who had traveled the world noticed that people from different areas suffered from various diseases implemented the need for public health system.
- Compares how the romans set high standards towards gods and goddesses in relation to their health and general life, while the roman government provided better environmental living for the citizens.
- Analyzes how the equality of life depicted by the romans in health, religion, and medicine had a great impact during the reign of the empire.
1175 wordsRead More - The Ecstasy of Reasonanalytical essayPentheus is worshiped and revered in Thebes just as he reveres Apollo. Apollo represents rationality, law, order, harmony and philosophical enlightenment. Dionysus is the god of wine and pleasure and represents all that is irrational, chaotic, and physically pleasing. Dionysus takes possession of the women of Thebes who have denied his godly descent from Zeus. He dresses them as bacchanals and sends them to the mountains to learn the rites of Bacchus, so that his prestige will be greater than that of Apollo in Thebes. A rumor reaches Pentheus that there is another controlling his people, specifically the women. His immediate reaction is outrage and Pentheus returns to Thebes to find that the women have indeed left their homes for the mountains, where they are said to "frisk in mock ecstasies...where they serve the lusts of men" (ln 210-220). Pentheus considers himself to be the protector of civilized society and does not want the Bacchae to disrupt the civic order and duty to which they are bound. Pentheus hostile response to the erotic liberation of the women by Dionysis is due to the closely held belief that sexual energy should be repressed within the c...
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how euripides questions ity of god versus man and man's allegiance to the gods. the appearance of dionysus in thebes raises a conflict for pentheus.
- Explains that pentheus reveres apollo, while dionysus is the god of wine and pleasure. the erotic liberation of women in thebes is due to the belief that sexual energy should be repressed within the culture of the city.
- Analyzes how pentheus dislikes dionysus, who has long-hair, rosy cheeks, and no overtly frightening qualities. he tries to reestablish his authority over the stranger during a verbal battle.
- Analyzes how pentheus' struggle to be the most powerful makes him blind to the god that appears in his kingdom.
- Analyzes how dionysus subjugates pentheus to his power and convinces him to dress as a woman.
- Analyzes how the life and death of pentheus emerges in this play as irrational and borders on insane. the play leaves him lying unburied and scattered so that he is denied the rites of a hero.
- Explains that euripides v. the bacchae. ed. david grene and richmond lattimore. chicago & london: the university of chicago press.
899 wordsRead More - Attack on Heresiesanalytical essayIn Irenaeus’ Against the Heresies his principal attack is against the Valentinian Gnostics, whose myths shifted away from “creation” to Epist...
In this essay, the author
- Explains that gnosticism is a religious movement that attempted to reconcile conflicting beliefs. gnostic writings are full of quotations and echoes of the bible.
- Analyzes how irenaeus was ravished by the internal turmoil in lyons, the city where he was bishop, and other surrounding areas where divisions of christians were taking place.
- Concludes that irenaeus' attacks against christian heresies had a major impact on the social world and influenced many other heresy hunters to follow.
- Analyzes how irenaeus' against the heresies is a profound exposition of gnosticism and other heretics.
639 wordsRead More - The Pagan Origins of Christianityargumentative essayThe first part of this paper will explore the mystery-religions, the reasons behind their popularity, and the Hellenistic world in which they grew that began with Alexander the Great. Next, their characteristics and connections first with Judaism and later with Christianity will be more deeply discussed. In the second part it will be shown that the mystery-religions helped to clear the pathway for the Christianization of the Greco-Roman world by men such as Paul the Apostle. Finally, the Emperor Constantine’s role in this story will be mentioned, during whose reign the mystery-religions declined and Christianity became the major religion of Europe and the near east. The paper will conclude with a brief speculation about the significance of these ideas to modern Christianity.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that the paper will explore the mystery-religions, the reasons behind their popularity, and the hellenistic world in which they grew that began with alexander the great.
- Compares the resurrection stories of osiris, isis, and mithras to those of the mystery-religions.
- Opines that the true test of the christian faith is whether it can stand up to historical investigations.
- Explains isis and horus in stanford university humanities and sciences: religious studies.
- Explains jonas, hans, the gnostic religion: the message of the alien god and the beginnings of christianity.
- Explains that the ancient world sought answers in the mystery-religions, which had a secret or "inner" teaching known as mysteria.
- Explains how alexander's conquest created a world in which ideas from eastern and western cultures became the ingredients in the religious and philosophical stewpot that would simmer down into christianity.
- Explains that while christianity developed in the jewish community, that community was spread over a wide area.
- Argues that christianity's early popularity and eventual establishment as the official religion in the classical world may owe much to its resemblance to the established and popular mystery-religions.
- Explains that the mass or eucharist was the central ritual around which christianity grew, and by which it was defined, may also have its origins in the mystery-religions.
- Explains that the similarities between christianity and the mystery-religions owe much to the fact that each evolved in the same society.
- Explains how the roman emperor constantine declared christianity the official state religion of the empire and outlawed all traditional forms of pagan worship.
- Explains that anderson, bernhard w. understanding the old testament, and angus, s. the mystery-religions: a study in the religious background of early christianity.
4076 wordsRead More - This paper will discuss the well published work of, Pomeroy, Sarah B. Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity. New York: Schocken, 1975. Print. Sarah B. Pomerory uses this book to educate others about the role women have played throughout ancient history. Pomerory uses a timeline to go through each role, starting with mythological women, who were called Goddesses. She then talks about some common roles, the whores, wives, and slaves during this time. Pomerory enlightens the audience on the topic of women, who were seen as nothing at the time. Men were seen as the only crucial part in history; however, Pomerory’s focus on women portrays the era in a new light.
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how sarah b. pomerory uses a timeline to go through each role, starting with mythological women, whores, wives, and slaves.
- Analyzes pomerory's reasoning to write the book, which was opposed to what many scholars were writing about. she decided it was time to talk about the less desirable subject matter, women.
- Analyzes how pomeroy's book helps give the audience a mental picture of what was occurring in history and the significant role men had while women received no credit and were treated inhumanly.
- Analyzes how the book reviews mythology, which gave the greeks the ideas of what women are and how they should be treated.
- Analyzes how the bronze age gives background on how men viewed women and the roles women played. the story of homer pomeroy shows men fighting for women because they were seen as property and paid of debts.
- Analyzes how the spartan woman was treated as an object to have children rather than a human being. women were blamed for things that were passed their capability to handle, while men weren't punished.
- Analyzes pomeroy's and other scholars' beliefs on women in the city of athens.
- Explains that in classical athens, there was a big separation between men and women. the chapter talks about the death rates of women in their childbearing years and how they increased during these times.
- Analyzes how pomerory's book talks about the views of women in the classical literature in athens, and the role they had in society.
- Explains that during the hellenistic era, there was political loss of autonomy. accent artifacts help know more about the lives of queens all the way down the hierarchy of slaves.
- Explains that the roman matron followed the hellenisic era, and roman elements helped aid in the upper-classment movement with women.
- Analyzes how pomeroy uses roman literature to find more information about the ruling classes. the chapter goes through the jobs women held and how they varied by social status.
- Analyzes how the book reviews the role of women in religion of the romans and relates the topic to modern italian customs.
- States that sarah b. pomeroy's book goddesses, whore, wives, and slaves is the first to be comprehensive in english.
- Explains that the book helped relate back to topics that they are currently studying in their world civilizations class.
- Recommends the book to others who want to know more about the treatment of women during greek and roman classical times.
1877 wordsRead More - Women And The Role Of Women In Classical Mythologyanalytical essayThe society in which classical myths took place, the Greco-Roman society was a very patriarchal one. By taking a careful gander at female characters in Greco-Roman mythology one can see that the roles women played differ greatly from the roles they play today. The light that is cast upon females in classical myths shows us the views that society had about women at the time. In classical mythology women almost always play a certain type of character, that is to say the usual type of role that was always traditionally played by women in the past, the role of the domestic housewife who is in need of a man’s protection, women in myth also tended to have some unpleasant character traits such as vanity, a tendency to be deceitful, and a volatile personality. If one compares the type of roles that ladies played in the myths with the ones they play in today’s society the differences become glaringly obvious whilst the similarities seem to dwindle down. Clearly, and certainly fortunately, society’s views on women today have greatly changed.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that greco-roman society was patriarchal, and the roles women played differed greatly from the ones they played today.
- Analyzes the role of women in greco-roman mythology. the first woman to be created was lusty, deceitful, and crafty.
- Explains that of the fourteen major olympian deities less than half are women. demeter, aphrodite, artemis, athena, and hestia portray the most typical roles for women in classical mythology.
- Analyzes how athena was portrayed as a strong female character in ancient mythology. she favored men and was misogynistic.
- Concludes that women played specific roles in classical society, such as housewives, vain and deceitful people, and villains. they are now seen as being able to play any role they desire, whether it is a housewife or workingwoman.
1197 wordsRead More - Sexuality In Greek Societyargumentative essayIllustrated in Aristophanes comedies, sex with one’s female slaves was tolerated in Greek society (Freeman, 224). There was also a difference between sexually oriented entertainment, such as dancers or plays, and women who actually engaged in prostitution (Freeman, 217). In Homer’s tales of heroes he portrayed women being readily available simply to meet sexual drives, and in his tales they were not the same women who were chosen for wives and were not shown the same respect as a wife (Freeman, 137). This illustrates the relationship between how and what the Greeks worshiped and how they lived out their own lives, including how they related to sexuality. Sexuality was represented and worshiped through the goddesses Aphrodite and Dionysus, Aphrodite being the more tame goddess of sexuality, while Dionysus was a patron of sexual abandon (Freeman, 237-238). The festivals celebrating Dionysus were affairs where the attendees could engage in unrestrained sexual activity, essentially purging oneself of unruly sexual desires and making self-discipline more accessible the rest of the year (Freeman, 242 & 270). Aphrodite on the other hand, inspired Sappho to dedicate herself and to lead a group of women in worshiping the goddess, and throughout her life she wrote sensual, though sometimes subtle, poetry which is valued for its quality even today (Freeman,
In this essay, the author
- Explains that greek perceptions and uses for sex and sexuality were far from victorian in nature. the corinthians engaged in ritual prostitution in their temples.
- Explains that women served two separate and distinct purposes, neither condoned in the same woman. the greeks had several beliefs where it pertained to procreation, one was that the woman did not contribute to a pregnancy besides carrying the infant
- Illustrates the relationship between how and what the greeks worshiped and how they lived out their lives, including how sexuality was represented through the goddesses aphrodite and dionysus.
- Compares the greek culture with the spartan and thebian cultures, which also engaged in homosexual relationships, under the auspices of brotherhood and soldiering.
- Analyzes how aristotle attributed the primary downfall of tyrants to their sexual deviances and lack of self-discipline in sexual matters. plato wrote in the republic that his ideal was for sexual relations to be more restrained.
776 wordsRead More - Athenagorasanalytical essayRuprecht, Louis A., Jr. "Athenagoras the Christian, Pausanius the Travel Guide, and a Mysterious Corinthian Girl." Harvard Theological Review 85 (1992): 35-49.
In this essay, the author
- Explains that athenagoras flourished in the second century ce. his two works, the plea on behalf of christians and on the resurrection of the dead, have traditionally been attributed to him.
- Explains that athenagoras does not appear in the ecclesiastical histories of either eusebius, socrates, or sozomen. philip of side, a deacon of chrysostom, is the only early witness.
- Argues that the arethas codex and three other manuscripts contain the same introductory ascription.
- Analyzes how athenagoras' writings display a working knowledge of the philosophers, though most of his citations come from florilegia.
- Analyzes philip's claim that athenagoras became a christian while he was at the head of the academy in athens.
- Argues that athenagoras' prohibition of second marriages and his montanist-sounding account of prophetic inspiration could have come from influences other than montanism.
- Analyzes how frend conjectured that athenagoras lived in northwest asia minor, since he relates the suicide of proteus.
- Argues that scholars have made a stronger case for athenagoras' residence in egypt. philip's knowledge of the alexandrian catechetical school and his unreliability elsewhere warrant caution.
- States that the first work ascribed to athenagoras is titled the plea on behalf of christians. most historians believe that this apology was addressed to marcus aurelius and commodus.
- Explains that the plea can be outlined as follows: the introduction and presentation of the charges; the defence against the charge of atheism; and the defense against incest and cannibalism.
- Analyzes how athenagoras challenges the accusation of theoretical atheism by referring to christian morality.
- Analyzes how athenagoras tackled the charges of cannibalism and incest throughout contemporary literature.
- Analyzes how athenagoras questions the motives of the accusers, attacks pagan morality, and stresses the rigor of christian morals.
- Explains that on the resurrection of the dead can be divided into two parts. part one argues for the resurrection of human body based upon the character of god.
- Explains that part two argues for the resurrection based upon the character of man.
- Analyzes how athenagoras' comment links ship of the plea with that of on the resurrection.
- Analyzes grant's arguments against athenagoras' composition, arguing that the two works, though bound together, suffered different textual histories.
- Analyzes how barnard compared old testament quotations in on the resurrection and athenagoras, and questioned grant's interpretation of the plea.
- Analyzes how the debate burgeoned into a barrage of scholarly examinations. gallicet published two articles which described fourteen detailed vocabulary differences between the plea and on the resurrection. pouderon responded with an article which related thirty vocabulary similarities.
- Opines that sufficient evidence has not been amassed to definitively wrest away the composition from athenagoras. although apparent vocabulary and conceptual differences can be assembled, many may be explained by the differences in genre, audience, occasion, and topic
- Explains crehan, j. h., athenagoras, the resurrection of the dead, westminster: newman press, 1956.
- Explains frend, w. h. c., martyrdom and persecution in the early church.
- Explains that lucks, henry a., "the philosophy of athenagoras: its sources and value."
- Explains that malherbe, abraham j., "the structure of athenagoras, 'supplicatio pro christianis'," vigiliae chrise; athénagorienne du de résurrection.
- Explains mcgowan, andrew, "eating people: accusations of cannibalism against christians in the second century."
- Analyzes the authenticity of the traité on the resurrection attribué à athénagore.
- Explains pratten, b. p., "athenagoras." the ante-nicene fathers, vol. 2.
- Explains rauch, james l., "greek logic and philosophy and the problem of authorship in athenagoras."
- Analyzes ruprecht, louis a., jr.'s "athenagoras the christian, pausanius the travel guide, and a mysterious corinthian girl."
- Explains that schwartz, eduard. athenagorae libellus pro christianis, oratio de resurrectione cadaverum. leipzig: j. c. hinrichs, 1891.
- Cites vermander, jeane-marie, and melanges de science religieuse.
- Cites zeegers-vander vorst, nicole, "la paternité athénagorienne du de résurrection." revue d'histoire ecclésiastique 87.
3081 wordsRead More - Forgiveness In Kineca's The Vigil Of Venusanalytical essayMotivated by love, spring, and the renewal of both, The Vigil of Venus is a poem reflecting optimism and the hope of forgiveness, possibly signaling the end of the Roman era and a new beginning for the people of Rome. Venus seems to mourn what is to come and states, “And her life’s one wedlock show her flushed with the beauty no man saw,” (643) Bewildered at the absence of recognition in the charm and beauty of Rome, her love is genuine, and is proven with this poem, as she hopes for love and looks forward to possible peace. One of Venus’ primary functions in mythology was love, and this poem allows her to paint a picture of love with colorful symbolism, giving hope for love to the reader, whether or not the reader has experienced it before, a promise of things to come, perhaps personally, or for Rome. When reflecting on The Vigil of Venus, one can see the similarities between the love and devotion to Rome, and the love and affection one might feel for someone. Although, those who have studied Roman literature might not approach this poem with similar views, I however, feel that despite any objections others might have, Venus was optimistic. Ultimately, I believe this poem is suggestive of a faith in the likelihood of love and new beginnings, either for Rome, or for an individual. In the end, Venus remains fearless and clings to the hope of passion and forgiveness, despite past wrongs and an unfamiliar future, which can be translated into hope for
In this essay, the author
- Analyzes how the mythical play reflects the beliefs of lucius annaeus seneca and his epicureanism thought process.
- Analyzes how trimalchio's dinner reflects how emperors during the late republic of the roman empire related to their people, likening themselves to gods.
- Analyzes how tacitus introduces the germans and their values to rome, where differences in religion and worship of gods are noted.
- Analyzes how tacitus shows appreciation for the german lifestyle and their simple virtues, which contrasted the decrease in moral values that modern day romans had succumbed to.
- Analyzes how the poem, the vigil of venus, suggests the imminent fall of the roman empire. it is a poem reflecting optimism and the hope of forgiveness.
- Explains that the roman empire worshipped emperors or traditional roman gods, but on the cusp of collapse, rome found itself in religious reform.
- Analyzes how st. augustine's story, how he robbed a pear-tree, reflects the christian god, and was written after the legalization of christianity.
- Analyzes the transformation that has occurred regarding religious ideals in roman literature. the roman spiritual dynasty changed the face of spirituality.
1417 wordsRead More