1.0 Introduction
Plant pathology is a science that studies plant diseases and attempts to improve the chances for survival of plants when they are faced with biotic and abiotic factors that cause disease. Plants will produce well as long as they get sufficient nutrient and moisture, light for photosynthesis and optimum temperature. However, plants also get sick. Sick plants produce poorly and the symptoms of disease will appear. The agents that cause disease in plants are similar to those causing disease in human and animals.
Cocoa plantation needs a healthy and vigorous tree because their life span is more than 25 years in producing pods. The infected cocoa trees by diseases will be partly or entirely weakening, thus unproductive and dead eventually. This will result the decrease in crop production due to loss in tree stand per hectare (Azmi; 2003).
It is need to planting cocoa clones that are resistant to diseases because, tough planting materials is the most operative and economical method of disease controlling (Lamin et al., 1999) especially for the small holder sector.
Black pod and canker which caused by Phytophthora palmivora, vascular streak dieback (Oncobasidium theobromae), several root diseases such as brown root disease (Phellinus noxius), white root disease (Rigidoporus lignosus), red root disease (Ganoderma sp.) and others (Wood; 1975) was disease that attack cocoa trees in Malaysia. The diseased tree which is infected by fungi normally will be treated with fungicide as a standard control measure (Wood, 1975), but this chemical control is very expensive and the pathogen might develop inoculation against the chemical used and in a long period it might not be completely effective.
2.0 Major Diseases of Coco...
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... spores of the fungus on to the growing tips of cocoa seedlings resulted in the development of disease symptoms in 36% of the seedlings and Oncobasidium theobromae was isolated from the diseased tissues. In addition there is much previously accumulated evidence that Oncobasidium theobromae is the primary cause of the disease and not just a secondary invader. Obvious or macroscopic weakening or mechanical damage of plants seemed to be unnecessary for fungal infection and the presence of the fungus actually preceded the development of disease symptom.
Lastly, the pathogen needs to be control by cultural practices, chemical and host plant resistance. Resistant pruning will avoid the dieback penetrate to other parts of trees. The cocoa trees need regular check up to detect the symptoms of dieback on the trees and the management can be proceeding if the diseases happen.
Catalase is a common enzyme that is produced in all living organisms. All living organisms are made up of cells and within the cells, enzymes function to increase the rate of chemical reactions. Enzymes function to create the same reactions using a lower amount of energy. The reactions of catalase play an important role to life, for example, it breaks down hydrogen peroxide into oxygen and water. Our group developed an experiment to test the rate of reaction of catalase in whole carrots and pinto beans with various concentrations of hydrogen peroxide. Almost all enzymes are proteins and proteins are made up of amino acids. The areas within an enzyme speed up the chemical reactions which are known as the active sites, and are also where the
The devastating chestnut blight was discovered invading its first victims in 1904. After exposure, the fungus enters into the trees cambium through the bark causing a canker. The fungus then spread around the cambium, girdling the tree, cutting of its life support and ultimately causing death. Many methods were used to try to prevent further infections, chemical fungicides, and burning other chestnuts around infected areas, but all were unsuccessful. The blight would soon reach through the Southern United States destroying all known native American chestnut trees.
Sclerotinia stem rot (SSR) is caused by fungus named sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) de Bary. It is a common disease in oilseed rape (Brassica napus) field. In Sweden, S. sclerotiorum can cause 60% yield reduction in infected fields (Nordin, 1992). SSR is a major disease of canola in North Dakota. The incidence ranged from 7-19% in North Dakota from 1991 to 1993. ( Lamey, 1995). It occurs almost every year and in most regions of the state. Symptoms on canola appear when flowering appear two to three weeks after infection. Mushy is the first visible symptom. Petals are the first part to be infected, then infection can spread to leaf petioles and finally to stems. Light brown discoloured patches will show on stems, branches and pods. These lesions will expand and the plant surface becomes greyish-white color. When main stem is infected, the canola plant will be easy to lodging. Hard, black structures called sclerotia (survival structure of the pathogen) will be produced on infected tissues after the infection is well-established. It can be found inside of infected stem.
In the 1880's a harmful fungus known as blight, inhabited the United States from imported Japanese chestnut trees. Blight quickly spread, killing chestnuts and chinquapins, which is another species of chestnut that produces 1 nut per bur. In 1904, Chestnut blight appeared infecting trees in New York City and spread at a rate of 20-50 miles per year. By 1906, W.A. Murrill reported that this disease is known to occur in New Jersey, Maryland, District of Columbia, and Virginia. In 1912, the Planet Quarantine Act was passed to reduce the chances of plant deterioration or devastation prevention. Chestnut Blight or Chestnut Bark Disease was originally found in 1904 and within 50 years, it spread across the eastern United States, from Maine to Georgia and as far west as the edge of Michigan. By 1950, the American chestnut was essentially eliminated as a forest tree. In 1972, importation from Italy gave a biological control in which a virus helped prevent the blight f...
Mature trees are susceptible to oak crown and root rot fungi (e.g., Inonotus, Ganoderma, and Laetiporus), that decay wood in trunks and roots. (Bergher, 2000.)
Citrus canker disease has been causing Florida growers issues for almost one hundred years. The bacterium, Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri, came to the United States from Southeast Asia in the early 1900’s. In 1933, after much effort and the destruction of thousands of infected trees, citrus canker was eradicated. However, another strain of canker appeared in 1995. Although the state put forth exhaustive efforts, a heavy hurricane season in 2004 spread the disease even further, and as a result citrus canker was declared unable to be eradicated in 2006 and is now considered endemic to Florida (Schumann and D’Arcy 88). Citrus canker is primarily spread by wind and rain, but can also be spread by contaminated humans or equipment and the transport of infected trees. Infected trees can be identified from the raised cankers on their leaves, stems, and fruit. Although the cankers do not generally penetrate the rind of the orange, the disease makes th...
The film “Sugar Cane Alley” is focused primarily on a young African American boy by the name of Jose, who is trying to create a new future for himself outside of the sugar cane fields. Jose, lives with his grandmother in the small poverty stricken community of Martinique, which has a French colonial presence. During the course of this film, one sees Jose going through the process of becoming a young man and learning from the mistakes he made as well as the people within his community. Jose does something non typical for someone living in Martinique, which is utilizing his determination and drive to gain more knowledge and become educated, all with the help of his grandmother and Mr. Medouze. Jose’s strong desire to be educated shows how
I chose the film Brown Sugar to discuss the hidden messages that were displayed in the plot and the love the characters had for music and their black community. Brown Sugar reflects the importance of relationships that mirrored love and the strong culture within the black community. Dre and Sydney’s relationship for example suggest that they are in love even though they are both involved with other people. They learn how to survive with each other but at the same are not with each other. Music plays an important role and it shows how the characters lives grow throughout the film.
Agriculturists have huge range of decent variety for choosing different reasonable yields and finding the reasonable pesticides for plant. Ailment on plant prompts the huge decrease in both the quality and number of agrarian items. The investigations of plant infection allude to the investigations of outwardly perceptible examples on the plants. Observing of wellbeing and infection on plant plays a vital part in effective development of harvests in the homestead. In right on time days, the observing and examination of plant illnesses were finished physically by the mastery individual in that field.
Colleges and universities are often compared to one another by young adults, professors, and parents. The University of South Carolina, or USC, and Furman University are two universities both in South Carolina. The University of South Carolina was founded on December 19th, 1801 by South Carolina’s leaders during the revolution. It is and always has been located in the center of South Carolina in Columbia just a few minutes away from the state house and many other historical sites to see downtown. Furman University was founded in 1826 as a men’s academy and theological institute. The campus was first established in Edgefield, South Carolina but is now located in the upstate near downtown Greenville. While researching the similarities and differences between the University of South Carolina, the nation’s best public university honors college, and Furman University, which primarily focuses on the
Climate change has negatively impacted the production of coffee beans in Central America. Coffee tree’s are accustomed to a temperature between 59-75 fahrenheit in order to produce coffee beans. The slightest change in temperature such as half a degree can negatively affect the crop. Extreme droughts and intense rainfall have been occurring due to climate change. This has created a decrease in production by at least 30% in all Central America producing coffee countries. The rise in temperature has also allowed coffee tree diseases such as roya which is a leaf rust fungus to break out. Roya infects the leaves on the coffee tree’s causing them to fall off. The less amount of leaves on the tree’s the less amount of energy the tree is receiving,
Plants are grown under controlled and sterile conditions which reduce the risk of being exposed to pests, pathogens and diseases.
2. Cook, A. A. 1975. Diseases of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits and Nuts, Hafner Press,
Cocoa production is predicted of getting shortage of supply in 2020 (Nelson, 2017). The famous chocolate drink that Malaysian drink daily, Milo contains cocoa. Other than Milo, Koko Krunch, Nestle Crunch Wafer, KitKat are also mainly made from cocoa. Nestle as a company which largely depends on cocoa bean for its products, will become one of the victim of this cocoa supply risk. The biggest cocoa producer in the world, Ivory Coast, is facing the problem of diseases infected in cocoa plant, frequent rain, and buyers forcing producers to sell cocoa at very low price (The Guardian, 2014). In Malaysia and Indonesia, cocoa plantations are threatened by a tiny moth named as cocoa pod borer which eat the seed (Nelson, 2017).. These pests has cost cocoa
Due to the rapid growth of canker, disease control on leaves is impossible. Researchers have spent long hours and much time trying to find a cure but have come up short. The only “cure” to citrus canker would be to burn the infected trees. However there are different kinds of treatment to help manage such as copper sprays. Most infections occur between April and July on orange with three to four applications of copper-containing materials at 3-week intervals would be sufficient to obtain relatively clean fruit (“Homeowners”). Copper sprays should begin when the fruit is only ¾ inch diameter and applied at a three week interval until the fruit is fully grown. However copper does not move from wherever it is applied, meaning that as the fruit grows all of the new tissue it not protected by the copper.