Bowlby proposed that attachment behaviour between a mother and child happens when certain behavioural systems are actuated in the infant as a consequence of its interaction with its environment, primarily with the interaction of its mother. By encompassing earlier theories of ethology, development psychology and psychoanalysis (Bretherton, 1992), Bowlby developed his theory on ‘Attachment’. This essay looks at the development of ‘Attachment Theory’ since its introduction over four decades ago and how the research of Ainsworth and Main significantly supports Bowlby’s thesis. It also looks at Mahler’s theory of ‘Separation-Individuation’ and the importance of how positive attachment is necessary for the advancement of autonomy and identity. Finally, it will explore the shift in paradigms from cognitive psychology to neuropsychology and look at how attachment communication between primary caregiver and infant influences the imprinting of the orbitofrontal cortex. Bowlby was concerned with issues such as: separation distress and the effect of ‘maternal deprivation’ on later development. He argued that maternal separation was a traumatic experience for infants and if infants unsuccessfully established a secure attachment by the age of three they could become pathological and suffer psychological problems (Burman, 1994). Bowlby’s theory was independent on ethology and he was largely associated with Harry Harlow and his experiments with rhesus monkeys (Burman, 1994) and Lorenz’s (1935) research on imprinting on geese. Bowlby’s idea was to draw a comparison between ethology and infants. Harlow’s (1958) simultaneous experiment demonstrated that infant monkeys who were separated and isolated from their mothers in their early stages ... ... middle of paper ... ...nvironment. In k. Lorenz. Studies in Animal and Human Behaviour vol 1. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Mahler, M., Pine, F., & Bergman, A. (1975). The psychological birth of the human infant: symbiosis and individuation. New York: Basic Books. Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for identifying infants as disorganised/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation. In M. T. Greenberg, D. Cicchetti & E. M. Cummings (eds.), Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research and Intervention (121-160). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Rendon, M. (2008). Psychoanalysis, a bridge between attachment research and neurobiology. The American Journal of Psychoanalysis, 68(2), 148-155. Schore, A. N. (1994). Affect regulation and the origin of the self: the neurobiology of emotional development. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
During the twentieth century, Harry Harlow performed one of the most controversial experiments that led to a scientific breakthrough concerning the parent-child relationship. It paved the way for understanding terms such as secure, insecure, ambivalent, and disorganized relationships (Bernstein, 2014, 364). During the course of this study, Harlow separated baby monkeys from their birth mothers and isolated them in frightening environments. According to the video “H.H. Overview”, this proved the monkey’s preference for a comforting mother versus a nutritional one. However, this raises the question: can his experiments be deemed ethical, or did his scientific inquiry overstep boundaries?
According to Klaus and Kennell, there are specific events, including skin-to-skin contact between mother and infant that must occur directly following the birth of a primate infant. This maximizes the chances of survival for the newborn not only because their mother is a source of food, but also because they will learn the culture they need to be successful in their environment. In the study, Klaus and Kennell test how much time a baby spends crying when they are separated from their mother. They concluded the increased time in babies that were separated was due to the anxiety that separation caused. The difficulty in this is that the cause of the baby’s distress is subjective. Also the notion of critical period proposed that the bonds and lessons taught during that time could not be developed later.
D. Brett King, Wayne Viney, & William Douglas Woody, (2013). A History of Psychology, Ideas & Context. 3rd ed. United States: Pearson.
Schaffer and Emerson (1964) challenged some of Bowlby’s claims which believed that babies have some biological need to attach to their mothers, or at least to a permanent carer. Schaffer and Emerson carried out an ethological study in Scotland which consisted of 60 babies from a working-class sector of Glasgow during the first eighteen months of their lives. They interviewed the mothers every 4 weeks and asked them several questions related to their child’s reaction when faced with a separation distress, e.g. who they smile at, who they respond to, who affects the child most when they leave and so on. Schaffer and Emerson used the results of their interviews to measure separation anxiety. They also observed how the children responded to the presence of the researchers noting how close they could get to the child before causing sings of distress (when they begin to look for their mothers, whimpering). They used these findings to measure stranger anxiety. The research showed as well that many of the children were actually attached to several people. According to Schaffer and Emerson this occurs when there is more than one person in the child’s life who took an interest in them and the infants became attached to them.
Criticisms of attachment theory have come mainly from the feminist schools of thought since the theory has been used to argue that no woman with a young child should work outside the home or spend time away from her baby (Goodsell and Meldrum, 2010). Children’s experience and development also depend on what happens after early years, whether bad or good later in life may change a child’s emotional development, e.g. lack of basic needs, diet, education, stimulation such as play might affect a child’s development (Rutter, 1981). Differences in cultures have to be taken into consideration as well. A study by Schaffer and Emmerson (1964) provided contradictory evidence for Bowlby’s attachment theory. They noted attachment was more prominent at eight months, and afterwards children became attached to more than one person.
It has been proposed that infant attachment styles do not change after the first year of life, the following essay will argue against this prompt in that ones attachment style will change continuously throughout life. Attachment theory is based on the joint work of Bowlby and Ainsworth (Bretherton, 1992). In recent years the idea of ‘attachment’ has become and increasingly popular debate within developmental psychology (Bretherton, 1992). Attachment theory provides an explanation on how parent and child relationships are formed and the important role they play in child development. However majority of the research into attachment has focused on identifying the stability of attachment rather then identifying the possible insatiability of
John Bowlby’s attachment theory established that an infant’s earliest relationship with their primary caregiver or mother shaped their later development and characterized their human life, “from the cradle to the grave” (Bowlby, 1979, p. 129). The attachment style that an infant develops with their parent later reflects on their self-esteem, well-being and the romantic relationships that they form. Bowlby’s attachment theory had extensive research done by Mary Ainsworth, who studied the mother-infant interactions specifically regarding the theme of an infant’s exploration of their surrounding and the separation from their mother in an experiment called the strange situation. Ainsworth defined the four attachment styles: secure, insecure/resistant, insecure/avoidant and disorganized/disoriented, later leading to research studies done to observe this behavior and how it affects a child in their adolescence and adulthood.
The attachment theory, presented by Mary Ainsworth in 1969 and emerged by John Bowlby suggests that the human infant has a need for a relationship with an adult caregiver, and without a subsequent, development can be negatively impacted (Hammonds 2012). Ainsworth proposes that the type of relationship and “attachment” an infant has with the caregiver, can impact the social development of the infant. As stated by Hammonds (2012), attachment between a mother and a child can have a great impact on the child 's future mental
Attachment theory is the idea that a child needs to form a close relationship with at least one primary caregiver. The theory proved that attachment is necessary to ensure successful social and emotional development in an infant. It is critical for this to occur in the child’s early infant years. However, failed to prove that this nurturing can only be given by a mother (Birns, 1999, p. 13). Many aspects of this theory grew out of psychoanalyst, John Bowlby’s research. There are several other factors that needed to be taken into account before the social worker reached a conclusion; such as issues surrounding poverty, social class and temperament. These factors, as well as an explanation of insecure attachment will be further explored in this paper.
Harlow ran a series of experiments in which he separated infant rhesus monkeys from their mothers six to twelve hours after birth (6). At first he raised the infant monkeys i...
John Bowlby was the first attachment theorist, he describes attachment as a “lasting psychological connectedness between human beings” (Bowlby, 1969, p.194), he believed that the earliest bonds that were formed between child and caregiver has a huge impact that continues throughout the infants life. Attachment is said to help keep the infant close to their mother, so it improves the child’s chance of survival.
N. Schore, 2014). Attachment theory, when viewed through the lens of affect, and affect-regulation, becomes a pragmatic framework for models of both psychopathogenesis, and the mechanism of change in psychotherapy (Schore 2001, 2002). The clinical implications of contemporary attachment theory have been widely articulated, relating early attachment to the neurobiology of both optimal and pathological emotional development, and to the psychopathogenesis of personality disorders (Schore 2001, 2002). Scientific consensus now exists, that “deficits in right brain relational processes” and subsequent affect dysregulation “underlie all psychological and psychiatric disorders”. (A. N. Schore, 2014, p.
Harry Harlow conducted an experiment with monkeys to determine their need for dependence from their mothers. He separated the monkeys from birth and arranged for them to be raised by two types of mothers. One mother was made from bare wires and the other was made of wire and covered with soft terry cloth. Some of the monkeys that had a choice of mothers and chose to spend more time bonding to the terry cloth surrogates. He then made a second observation to separate the infants into two groups and give them a choice between the two types of mothers. All of the monkeys drank equal amounts of milk and grew physically at the same rate, but the monkeys who had softer contact with the terry cloth behaved differently than the monkeys whose mothers were made of all wire. Hallow then hypothesized that the monkeys from the first group benefited an emotional attachment which was nonexistent with the second group. He assumed this hypothesis from small harmful tests that frightened the monkeys in which they would make bodily contact with their mother. As for the other monkeys they panicked and did not resort to comfort from their mothers. He also put a third group in complete isolation which permanently damaged the monkeys. This group resulted in various abnormalities such as blank staring, stereotyped repetitive circling of their cages, and self-mutilation. Harlow also compared the test on monkey to that of children and how powerful the implications are for any and all separations
Bowlby’s attachment theory has greatly influenced his practice. His theory of attachment explains the importance of having a figure that the child shares a strong bond with. Having an attachment can significantly support a child’s development, as Barbara Woods suggests that “his theory of attachment proposed that attachment is innate in both infants and mothers, and that the formation of this attachment is crucial for the infants development” Wood, B (2001, p.53). Bowlby believed that forming an attachment will help a child develop in all areas, e.g. emotionally, physically and mentally. However, if they did not form an attachment during the sensitive period, the child may have issues or problems in their cognitive, emotional and social development.
In the mid-20th century, scientist Harry Harlow conducted experiments upon maternal isolation and social isolation on infant monkeys. The infant monkeys were kept in cages, with 2 replica surrogate mothers in the form of a cloth mother, and a wire mother with a bottle. Harlow researched into the maternal characteristics of monkeys compared to human babies. Furthermore, Harlow experimented on social isolation, keeping the baby monke...