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Comparing social science and natural science
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The Theory of Scientific Theories
Sir Popper's piece, "Science: Conjectures and Refutations," reaffirms the scientific methods currently in use. No scientific theory is ratified without serious consideration and careful observation. Science is the pursuit of what can be proven false and the resulting assumptions of what must be true.
The problem that plagues Sir Popper is the clear definition of science and pseudoscience. Though the empirical method is common to both, the level of inferential data varies greatly. One can amass large amounts of data by observing human behavior, but data alone is not the stuff of scientific theory. Theories must be assembled fusing factual data, and inducive reasoning. The point of induction seems to be where science and pseudoscience must part ways. A scientific theory will, after applying raw data, leave little room for inference. On the other hand, a pseudoscience allows the experiment to progress in any number of directions. Popper becomes quite aware of this dilemna of the social scientist when he applies both Freud and Adlers conflicting psychological theories to the same test case, and they perform equally well. This brings him to the question of whether social theories explain human behavior or simply adapt to it. Physical sciences, as the name implies, depend on physical eveidence to defend their theories.
Sir Popper formulates two sets of conclusions on the subject. Though the first is soon discounted, it deserves considera...
Science is a way of approaching the world, knowing why and how things around us are occurring. The scientific method allows scientists to be precise and focused. Through that medium, they can determine which hypotheses are consistently supported such that they become theories and which need more modification or rejection. This type of knowing can be tested and quantified. Scientists strive to make their observations as objective as possible, to be devoid of human interest. Scientists try to control all the variables ...
Due to Skara Brae being prehistoric, and therefore, writing had not yet been developed, any evidence found on the site is archaeological. This includes any physical remains or artifacts that help reveals anything about the settlement. An example of an obvious of evidence are the 8 huts that were inhabited for about 600 years by about 50-100 people at a time. These huts were originally built to be underground in order to insulate and protect their homes from the harsh elements that come with living close to the sea. However, due to the layout of the houses, it is suggested that people of Skara Brae were a close-knit community. This is supported by the evidence of stone passageways connecting the underground huts in a network of tunnels. Also, since the houses were all built to a similar design and the furnishings were very similar and placed in the same positions in all the huts, it is suggested that status was not that important and not weighed in terms of personal possessions. Instead, it is the community that was thought to be more central in the people’s lives during this time.
The Chalmers's view against the Popperian hypothetico-deductive. Popper mentioned that people shouldn't concentrate our hopes on an unacceptable principle of induction.Also, he claimed that without relying on induction we still can work out how science works and why it is rational.1 Hence, I would like to said Popper would disagree with Chalmer's opinion. Also, I think Popperian might say Chalmers is wrong because his falsifiable in Popperian sense. Chalmers might be falsified if scientific knowledge is observed not reliable due to some experiment and observation might contain mistakes and we do not find them now. Furthermore, the Popperian might argue that science can not be prove but can justify the better theories or laws.1 We can justify which scientific laws or theories are better ones as there is falsified is found, or not scientific. When they are found falsified or not scientific, we can seek for novel bold hypot...
What is a scientific theory? How does the scientific use of theory differ from common uses of the word theory? What effect does this have on public discussion about Darwinian Evolution?
Any hypothesis, Gould says, begins with the collection of facts. In this early stage of a theory development bad science leads nowhere, since it contains either little or contradicting evidence. On the other hand, Gould suggests, testable proposals are accepted temporarily, furthermore, new collected facts confirm a hypothesis. That is how good science works. It is self-correcting and self-developing with the flow of time: new information improves a good theory and makes it more precise. Finally, good hypotheses create logical relations to other subjects and contribute to their expansion.
Results from the study show that when images were inverted, the inverson effect only applied when participants viewed images of the sexualized male. Therefore indiciating that sexualized men are perceived as persons on a congitive level, whereas women are perceived as objects. Similarly participants in the study had better recognition of the inverted females than that of the males, this perception of sexualized women was manifested by both male and female participants, it supports previous reseearch by Goldenberg, Cooper, Heflick, Routledge & Arndt (2010) in which they found from their study that when focus is placed on the targets appearance, on...
Zingiber officinale, referred to commonly as ginger or garden ginger, is a member of the Zingiberaceae family. It is a plant of vital importance due to the variety of derivatives that can be produced and utilized. Ginger’s diverse therapeutic capabilities for the body have contributed to healthcare dating back to ancient civilizations and continue to evolve with modern science as more in-depth means of observation are focused on its composition and potential capabilities. In addition, by-products of the plant have been embraced for their distinctive qualities of taste and smell. The results of these known attributes of ginger have allowed it to become an integral part of many cultures of the world, on large and small scales, with much to offer.
The overarching or oversimplification of these theories which seem to many to be a strength, for Popper was actually a weakness. With theories such as these anything could be interpreted into them (or the theory could be interpreted into the evidece). Thus, Popper came to the conclusion that unless a theory can be proven wrong, it cannot be labeled as scientific. He also claimed that risky predictions should be made and be testable. Also, confirming evidence should not count unless it is an attempt to falsify the theory. Now, Popper's concern the problem of the "logic of science" or the "logical problem of induction." Popper sees induction as having the same basic problem as the overgeneralization principle of the psychological, historic theories, ect. He regards no actual rule of induction ...
Settlements: Saami settlements range in size and groups, since the population is semi-nomadic. More permanent villages and towns were range from a few families to a few thousand individuals (Larson, 2014). Usually have multiple children sometimes in excess of five children in a small home (Larson, 2014). Often the settlements were along waterways affording access by boat in the summer and by sled in the winter as a means of transportation for them, various forms of permanent and portable housing exist, often side by side in the same settlement with the nomadic housing, or even on the same household plot (Britannica,
Popper states that the decision to accept a basic statement is connected to experiences in that they can motivate a decision, but a basic statement cannot be justified by experiences. The problem seems to be that he sees theories as statements about the world, similar to basic statements, therefore theory can be motivated by experience but not justified by it; or, the motivation to accept a theory can be experience, but we cannot justify theory with that motivation. It may help to consider how Popper feels about theory. He believes that “theories are nets cast to catch what we call ‘the world’: to rationalize, to explain, and to master it … [and that] we endeavor to make the mesh ever finer and finer” (“Logic of Scientific Discovery,” 59). It is difficult to find where justification fits into this; Popper is not clear on where the justification can come from, and even seems to imply that scientific theories cannot truly be justified. In “Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge,” Popper goes as far as to say “what we should do … is to give up the idea of ultimate sources of knowledge, and admit that all knowledge is human; that it is mixed with our errors, our prejudices, our dreams, and our hopes; that all we can do is to grope for truth even though it be beyond our reach”
In the process of development of human society, architecture and culture are inseparable. Cuthbert (1985) indicates that architecture, with its unique art form, expresses the level of human culture in different historical stages, as well as the yearning towards the future. According to his article, it can be said that architecture has become one of the physical means for human to change the world and to conquer the nature. Consequently, architecture has been an important component of human civilization. Since 1980s when China started the opening and reforming policy, a variety of architectural ideas, schools and styles have sprung up. Accompanying with a momentum of...
The depiction of culture in a place may be through the visual components of the built form or through the timeless practices used by the people .When evaluating the architecture based on the lifestyle of the people ( which is a reflection of their tradition) it is important to study the living realm as a representation of the same. Their notion of house should be evaluated based on the family structure, their beliefs, the drama of life, and their social intercourse
In terms of a traditional science, one key point is empiricism: a reliance on observations of behaviours instead of our logical reasoning, to further aid explanations of why humans act in certain ways (Valentine, 1992:5). In this way Psychology could be considered a science as psychologists are constantly monitoring behaviours some may perceive as common sense, for example Milgram’s study into obedience (1974). However, for an outcome of any observation to be correct, we must have faith in how it was measured. Two further questions arise from this in relation to Psychology as a scientific measure: whether Psychology doe’s mis-measure, and secondly whether, as some propose, Psychology is ordinari...
Regarding developing of technology, it is obviously that video games are one of the most common used materials. Leaving the technology industry on the other side, our research question is concerning about interaction between younger population and video games. As media and other resources introduce world population with rising number of younger population’s usage of video games and changing of behavior, the issue lies why this is considered as the problem. We chose this topic because we wanted to analyze and understand the way of changing of children’s behavior while they are using video games. As environment seems to be one of the basic factors that influence on human behavior, video games are presented as their virtual environment that can lead to bad or good changes. Our research paper is regarded as a significant one, because one of the important things for human existents is interaction with their environment, which video games have become. Strengths and limitation that can be caused with using of video games have huge connection with psychological state of person. This investigation is considered as worthy, because world is integrated with questions about younger population and their behavior that is affected by virtual environment and possibilities of changing of behavior. Nowadays, people are mostly confused about impact of violent and educational video games on younger population. The study related to this claim is research that is made in one college where students were exposed to using of the violent video games for the time. After a time, measurements that are made showed that students that were playing violent video games behaved aggressively. It also showed that student’s b...
Ginger has been widely used in different culinary cuisines and has numerous therapeutic qualities. It is a rhizome or mass of roots from the plant Zingiber officinale and with the numerous members of this plant family, all has its own uses as a delicacy, medicine, and spice. It can be served in solid form as fresh, dried, or powdered and in liquid form such as juice, extract, or oil. Ginger has been found to be highly effective in fighting a variety of diseases and conditions because of its impact in relieving excessive inflammation, which is a notable underlying cause of many illnesses. Here are several areas wherein ginger has been shown to be very effective: