Craik (1972) defined depth as “the meaningfulness extracted from the stimulus rather than in terms of the number of analyses performed upon it” (1973, p.48). We can process information in three ways: Structural Processing, Phonemic Processing and Semantic Processing. Structural Processing, a form of shallow processing, stressed the physical appearance of a stimulus. This is when we encode the physical qualities of something. Phonemic Processing, a form of intermediate processing, emphasizes the sound of a word. These two processes involve maintenance rehearsal, resulting in the retention of information in short-term memory. Semantic Processing, which is deep processing, happens by encoding meanings of words and relating them to similar words with similar meanings. This involves a more meaningful analysis of information, elaboration rehearsal, leading to improved recall (Tulving and Madigan, 1970).
Encoding information in different ways affects the way in which information is remembered. During deep processing, images, thinking and associations are used to make it easier for information to be recalled (Craik, 1972). This improves study methods of learners, as elaboration is an important step in transferring material into long-term memory using the technique of association. Deep processing involves learners spending extra time and effort on material, making it more easily remembered. By encoding only physical qualities and sounds, this can result in short-term retention of information. Therefore, the more deeply information is processed, the more meaningful the elaboration and the better the information is remembered (Eysenck, 1978).
A greater depth means a higher degree of semantic, cognitive analysis. In order for a stimulus to ...
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... They are useful to acquire information such as learnt study methods or for retrieval from long-term memory. This means that mnemonics can be used at a time of input, learning, or output, retrieval. In doing so, one is rehearsing and associating information, as well as bringing information into consciousness. Mnemonic methods increase the recall of information, which becomes more meaningful. Mnemonics can be verbal, such as acronyms and rhymes, or visual (Baddley A, 1982).
The topic of mnemonics improves study methods of learners as it helps avoid “illusions of learning.” The familiarity effect mechanism shows that re-reading material results in greater fluency and the repetition makes material familiar. When a student encounters that same material in the future, he will be able to interpret the familiarity as he already knows the material (Karpicke et al., 2009).
The two types of mental representations of content differ in the functionality and qualities of these representations. Verbatim representations relate to the specificities of information directly. Simply put, verbatim representations in the memory function similarly to when someone is to quote a person, verbatim, that is, to include what was said, exactly as the person said it. In comparison, gist representations in memory correlate to a higher level of processing said mental representations, meaning that the gist of content is extracted from the representation to derive a conceptual meaning void of exacting specificities found in verbatim based processing. These memories are more vague and qualitative and interpretive based on emotion, education, culture, experience, worldview, and numeracy (Reyna talk). Gist representations function beyond linguistics in music, pictures, graphs, numbers, and events (Chick & Reyna, 2012).
What is memory for and how does it work? Suppose that memory and conceptualization work in the service of perception and action. Conceptualization is the encoding of patterns of possible physical interaction with a three-dimensional world. These patterns are constrained by the structure of the environment, the structure of our bodies, and memory. Thus, how we perceive and conceive of the environment is determined by the types of bodies we have. Such ...
Whereas the interpreter is obliged to go to the depth of things, like an excavator, the moment of interpretation [genealogy] is like an overview, from higher and higher up, which allows the depth to be laid out in front of him in a more and more profound visibility; depth is resituated as an absolutely superficial secret.(18)
The Effects of Levels of Processing on Memory PB1: Identify the aim of the research and state the experimental/alternative hypothesis/es. (credited in the report mark scheme) To show how different levels of processing affects the memory. “People who process information deeply (i.e. semantic processing) tend to remember more than those who process information shallowly (i.e. visual processing). ” PB2: Explain why a directional or non-directional experimental/alternative hypothesis/es has been selected. (I mark) I have used a directional experimental hypothesis because past research, such as that by Craik and Tulving (1975) has proved this. PB3:
1In the article, The Critical Importance of Retrieval for Learning, Jeffery D. Karpicke and Henry L. Roediger III expound on the long standing assumptions regarding the effects of repeated studying and repeated testing on learning in order to improve long-term retention on learning material. Recently studies have shown that research can occur during testing, contradictory to the traditional beliefs that learning occurs while people study and encode material. Another purpose of this research and this article was to examine a students’ assessments of their own learning, after getting a set of material under repeated study or repeated testing. Finally, The Critical Importance of Retrieval for Learning, explained further the relationship of speed
Altogether this study has helped us learn more about the brain and memory. Learning is measured thorough when a student can reiterate the right answer to a question. In this study, students in one conditions learned forging language vocabulary words in standard example of recurrent study exam trials. In three other conditions, once a student had correctly formed the language item, it was constantly studied but dropped from further testing. Repeatedly tested but dropped from the further study or just dropped from both the study and also the test. The results reveal the critical part of retrieval practice in combining education and shows that even college students seem naive of the fact.
Mechanical or rote repetition of the information is a great way to remember this information. The more time you spend rehearsing the information the longer the information will be remembered. This is actually a poor way of remembering things because it doesn’t make the information meaningful; “surface processing”. Elaborative Rehearsal is a more effective way of remembering information through “deep processing”, which is relating the information to information you already know. This technique is used in more in the education system than maintenance rehearsal. Even with these two ways to store things we still run into filling errors. Filling errors are where your brain has filed information incorrectly. The final step in the memory process is retrieval. Retrieval is the locating of stored information and returning it into your conscious thoughts. There are a few cues that help us retrieve them, such as priming, context, and state. Priming is the nonconscious identification or words and objects, by referring in to particular representations or associations in the memory just before carrying out the action or task. The memories that come back to your conscious mind when you are in a certain place or area are called context, dependent memories. When you are in a certain emotional state you many retrieve memories of when you were also in that same emotional
Human memory is flexible and prone to suggestion. “Human memory, while remarkable in many ways, does not operate like a video camera” (Walker, 2013). In fact, human memory is quite the opposite of a video camera; it can be greatly influenced and even often distorted by interactions with its surroundings (Walker, 2013). Memory is separated into three different phases. The first phase is acquisition, which is when information is first entered into memory or the perception of an event (Samaha, 2011). The next phase is retention. Retention is the process of storing information during the period of time between the event and the recollection of a piece of information from that event (Samaha, 2011). The last stage is retrieval. Retrieval is recalling stored information about an event with the purpose of making an identification of a person in that event (Samaha, 2011).
McNamara, T. P. and Holbrook, J. B. 2003. Semantic Memory and Priming. Handbook of Psychology. 445–474.
Our five senses –sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch help the ways in which we perceive the world around us. And while they seem to work independently at time they can effect each other and the way we comprehend something. Seeing something pretty, touching something soft, eating something cold and smelling something rotten are the sense we use to connect with the world around us and will all effect how we move forward in that situation. When you look at the top picture say the color of the word not the word itself. It is harder than it seems and takes a little practice to do it efficiently. It is because we see the spelling we were taught not the color it was written in. It is hard to process it the other way, but not impossible. Take the bottom picture for another example is this a
In this experiment we replicated a study done by Bransford and Johnson (1972). They conducted research on memory using schemas. All human beings possess categorical rules or scripts that they use to interpret the world. New information is processed according to how it fits into these rules, called schemas. Bransford and Johnson did research on memory for text passages that had been well comprehended or poorly comprehended. Their major finding was that memory was superior for passages that were made easy to comprehend. For our experiment we used two different groups of students. We gave them different titles and read them a passage with the intentions of finding out how many ideas they were able to recall. Since our first experiment found no significant difference, we conducted a second experiment except this time we gave the title either before or after the passage was read. We found no significant difference between the title types, but we did find a significant difference between before and after. We also found a significant title type x presentation interaction. We then performed a third experiment involving showing objects before and after the passage was read. There we did encountersome significant findings. The importance and lack of findings is discussed and we also discuss suggestions for future studies, and how to improve our results.
What is depth, and what does it mean? Depth is the extent, the intensity, depth
Bransford and Johnson (1972) also showed that schemas assist us in memorization and interpretation. Macrae et al. (1994) demonstrated how schemas in terms of schemas information processing by simplifying it and thus enabling more effortless and efficient processing. Thus, reconstruction memory is not always inaccurate. Life is full of repetitive patterns and by capturing essential regularities, schemas help us predict future occurrences and fill up the general missing blanks instinctively.
Learning to tie shoes and ride a bike requires the encoding, storing, and retrieving of past observations of the procedure. With a lot of practice, children master these skills so well that they are able to remember them the rest of their lives. Memory is the storing of information over time. It is one of the most important concepts in learning; if things are not remembered, no learning can take place. As a process, memory refers to the "dynamic mechanism associated with the retention and retrieval of information about past experiences" (Sternberg 260). We use our memory about the past to help us understand the present. The study or memory in psychology is used in different ways, as well as there are many different ways to study how memory works in humans. In psychology there are many tasks used to measure memory, and different types of memory storages that human's use, such as sensory storing, or short term storing. There are also a lot of techniques that humans use to improve their memory, which they can use to learn, such as mnemonic devices. All these things can be classified as important issues in the study of human memory and ways of learning.
Reading and the ability to comprehend has become a phenomenon that has attracted professionals throughout the globe. It is fascinating that humans have the ability to integrate the information perceived through one’s senses with previously acquired knowledge. The attainment of information through reading is extensive, however, researchers are exploring whether reading at a rapid speed will result in decreased comprehension. Using the McLelland and Rumelhart model (1981), this essay will discuss whether one is able to learn to read at a faster speed and whilst still understand and remembering what has been read. Furthermore, this essay will explore the validity of increasing comprehension when reading at a faster rate as well as the positive