The relationship between civilisation and barbarity is an eminent theme in the works of antiquity, whose civilisations concerned themselves with eschewing the improper mores of the barbarous. Whether it was the savant Greeks, cosmopolitan Romans, or ascetic early Christians, barbarous behaviour was considered odious, and their supposed superiority to brutes was a source of pride. But these themes, whilst contrastive, aren't categorical; rather, they're amorphous ideas, shaped by an author's use of them in the text. This essay will examine the variance in the relationships between civility and barbarity in Milton's "Comus", and Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus (abbreviated to Titus), thus establishing how these themes are malleable ones that the author can manipulate in the text. To begin, I'll establish the versions of civility and barbarity found in these texts, then I'll examine the texts apropos to several other topics, which shall further define and contrast their relationships between civility and barbarity.
In "Comus", Milton's encomium of John Egerton, barbarity is the manifestation of moral decay rather than a state of being conferred by instinct, or low birth. As one's fall into depravity is a volitional lapse, Comus must inveigle Lady into supping his potion, as he cannot foist the eldritch philtre upon her: "Be wise and taste."1 (p.65). St. Augustine propounds similar ideas regarding the voluntary aspect of corruption in City of God, which shall be addressed in relation to both texts at a later point. In a statement concatenating "Comus" and sacrilege, Achsah Guibbory writes: "Milton presents Comus' courtly revels as a false religion"2. Milton limns Comus akin to Satan in "Comus", as neither can impel the soul, and must...
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...phosis of Ovid; Oxford University Press, New York (2012). P.79.
9: Achsah Guibbory, "Milton and English Poetry", in A Companion to Milton, ed. Thomas N. Corns; Blackwell Publishers (2001) p.76.
10: Maggie Kilgour,"'Comus' and the Translatio Ovidii" in Milton and the Metamorphosis of Ovid; Oxford University Press, New York (2012). P.83.
11: Virgil, The Aeneid, trans. and ed. David West, Revised Edition; Penguin Books, published by the Penguin Publishing Group (2003). Book 2, line 390-400.
12: Ovid, Metamorphoses, ed. Charles Martin; A Norton Critical Edition, published by W.W. Norton & Company in USA (2010). P.8.
13: Robert S. Miola, "Titus Andronicus: Rome and the Family" in Shakespeare's Rome; Cambridge University Press (1983). P.60.
14: Robert Martin Adams,"Reading 'Comus' " in Modern Philology, Vol.51, No.1 (Aug., 1953); University of Chicago Press. P.22.
Hannibal, the great strategic commander, took the fight to Rome to carry out his vision of independence within the Mediterranean region. He didn’t give up the vision simply because he lacked sufficient resources. Instead, he used the resources he had. Unfortunately, for all his greatness, he had some slips in ethical judgment that will forever stain his reputation as one of the great generals of antiquity. At the beginning of this essay I told a story about the bully and how you stood up to the bully because of your vision to make the neighborhood a better place. What a shame that you ultimately lost your fight because of your inability to remain ethical during the battle.
Braund, Susanna Morton. “Virgil and the Cosmos: Religious and Philosophical Ideas.” The Cambridge Companion to Virgil. Charles Martindale, ed. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1997. 204-221.
* Scully, J & Herington, C.J., Aeschylus: Prometheus Bound (Oxford University Press, New York 1975)
A fathering text to Shakespeare’s Titus Andronicus, says T.W Baldwin, was a chapbook that was interested in the relationship between the Goths and the Romans (Kermode 1067), an idea that appears as an underlying theme throughout the play. In Titus Andronicus, the characters are often observed trying to discover which people, the Goths or the Romans, are more uncivilized. In the opening of the play, in response to the Roman’s inhuman sacrifice ritual, Chiron, son to the Gothic queen Tamora asks “Was never Scythia half so barbarous” (Shakespeare 1.1.131), claiming, though he is a Goth, his people were never so barbaric. Just moment after, Titus’s brother, Marcus, attempts to reason with him, saying “Thou art a Roman, be not barbarous” (1.1.378). He accuses Titus of being
Doloff, Steven. "Aspects of Milton's 'Paradise Lost' in James Joyce's 'Araby'.," James Joyce Quarterly, vol. 33, (1995) : Fall, pp. 113(3).
Virgil. “The Aeneid, Book IV”. The Norton Anthology of Western Literature. 8th ed. Vol. 1. New York: W.W. Norton, 2006. 974-95. Print.
Separated by seven hundred years these two ancient European epic poems, the Aeneid and the Odyssey, use the after-effect of the Trojan War as a basis for their storyline. William Franke, a professor at Vanderbilt University and historian, constructed this scholarly journal article; The Secondariness of Virgilian Epic and Its Unprecedented Originality, to compare and contrast the Aeneid and the Odyssey, and proposes a theory based on prophecy by Virgil (Franke, 1). Dealing with the first chronologically written poem, the Odyssey, a Greek poem written by Homer, starts off beginning ten years after the Trojan War, where the main character Odysseus faces conflict on his journey returning home to his kingdom Ithaca. Throughout the epic poem, Odysseus encounters issues with Greek Gods, traveling at sea, and gaining acceptance from his wife and kingdom to believe that he is not an imposter—luckily, he reclaims control of his throne and wife’s love (Krstovic 1). Comparatively, the roman literature written by Virgil, the Aeneid’s plot is about the Trojan king Aeneas, who leaves his land with the remaining survivors to reside in Rome, Italy. The Aeneid is a combination of the past and the future, where Virgil writes about the future of the Roman Empire based on historical information of the past. The synopsis presented by Franke, is the Aeneid mimics aspects from the Odyssey and presents his theory by comparing and contrasting against one another. Franke also argues, Virgil wrote the Aeneid based on historical events designed to explain the creation of the successful Roman Empire and Virgil’s writings have a religious-moral goal dealing with prophecy related to one of Christians (Franke).
Lawall, Sarah N. “The Aeneid.” The Norton Anthology of Western Literature. 8th ed. Vol. 1. New York: W.W. Norton, 2006. 612-652. Print.
In addition, the overall theme of the poem highlighted morality, which was a definitive tenet of Greco Roman civilization. In many ways, Virgil wrote the poem as a means of lauding the moral virtues of Roman society and as a personal challenge to outdo Homer’s epic compositions, The Illiad and The Odyssey. Virgil was successful because he had incorporated many of the same tales shared in the works of Homer into one epic poem which presented a linear storyline in the books that detailed the life and times of Aeneas and the Trojans. That being said, Virgil did not stray far from the approach that many writers had used before him; his primary focus throughout the Aeneid was placed squarely upon the back of idealized Greek and Roman moral principles, which were the dedication to ones’ honor, family, and country. By no means is there anything wrong with this approach, but in many ways, the entire poem could be viewed as a “propaganda” piece; while it might have served to enlighten, educate, and create a cohesive and uplifting story for the Roman populace, the poem lacked depth and a more profound exploration of human intricacies. While Virgil’s epic poem has stood the test of time and remains one of the greatest pieces
Reichert, John. Milton's Wisdom: Nature and Scripture in Paradise Lost. Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press. 1992
Milton’s Satan in Paradise Lost is a complex character meant to be the evil figure in the epic poem. Whenever possible Satan attempts to undermine God and the Son of God who is the true hero of the story. Throughout the story Milton tells the readers that Satan is an evil character, he is meant not to have any redeeming qualities, and to be shown completely as an unsympathetic figure. Satan’s greatest sins are pride and vanity in thinking he can overthrow God, and in the early part of the poem he is portrayed as selfish while in Heaven where all of God’s angels are loved and happy. Satan’s journey starts out as a fallen angel with great stature, has the ability to reason and argue, but by Book X the anguish and pain he goes through is more reason for him to follow an evil path instead. Even so, Milton uses literal and figurative imagery in the description of Satan’s character to manipulate the reader’s response to the possibility that Satan may actually be a heroic figure. As the plot of the story unfolds there are moments where the reader can identify with Satan’s desires and relate to his disappointments.
Tracy, H. L. "'Fata Deum' and the Action of the 'Aeneid'" Greece & Rome 11.2 (1964): 188-95.
Williamson, George. ed. Milton: Formal Essays and Critical Asides. Cleveland: Case Western Reserve Univ. Press, 1970.
Loewenstein, David A Student Guide: Milton-Paradise Lost, 2nd Edition Cambridge University Press, 1993, Second Edition 2004.
Milton: Modern Essays in Criticism. Ed. Arthur E. Barker, b. 1875. New York: Oxford University Press, 1965. 205-217.