I. Introduction
Out of all the organelles there are two that have fascinated microbiologists for the past hundred years. The first is the mitochondria, nicknamed the "powerhouse of the cell." The second is the chloroplast in plant cells that have functions similar to those of the mitochondria. What do these organelles do? What are the similarities and differences of these organelles? This essay will help you to understand these two fascinating organelles. II. Mitochondria
Mitochondria are small cytoplasmic organelles.
They are five to 10 micrometers long and one to .5 micrometers wide. They main function is to provide energy for cell activities. They house the respiratory enzymes that convert oxygen and the products of fat, carbohydrate, and protein metabolism into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and guanosine triphosphate (GTP), chemicals that have high-energy bonds. They are hollow all except for a folded line of matter that contains the ribonucleic acid (RNA) or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of the cell.
Mitochondrion make use of a process known as oxidation to make fat acids and pyruvate acid into (indirectly) ATP and Pi (inorganic phosphate). The process goes as follows:
1) Oxidation of pyruvate acid into acetyl coenzyme A.
2) Oxidation of fat acids into acetyl coenzyme A.
3) Oxidation of acetyl coenzymes from step one and two into CO2 and NADH2.
4) Oxidation of NADH2 by oxygen forming water.
5) Synthesis of ATP coupled to NADH2 oxidation by process of oxidative phosphorylation.
Most of this is self explanatory except for the last step (5). The final step contains a phrase "coupled to."
This means that the compound (NADH2) must be present and have been oxidized for the synthesis of ATP, similar to a catalyst's presence of some reactions.
Although the mitochondrion's major purpose is to supply the cell with the much needed
ATP, it has others. Included in this list are nitrogen metabolism, porphyrin synthesis and steroid hormone synthesis.
III. Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are complicated green organelles that occur within the cytoplasm of plant cells.
They are the main sites of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the change of light energy, CO2 water into sugar which is used as food. They are disk shaped organelles and are surrounded by two layers of membrane that enclose the watery inside or stroma. Inside the stroma there are green dots called grana (grains) that hold chlorophyll.
As with the mitochondrion the Chloroplasts use radiant or solar energy to make a product. In this case hexose.
1) The pigment complexes in the chloroplasts (including but not limited to chlorophyll) collect solar energy. 2) The light energy gathered in the first step is used to run an electron transport chain that oxidizes water into 0xygen. NADP is reduced.
3) ATP synthesis is coupled to the electron transport train.
For part one of the experiment, my team asked the question of which cell fraction of the measured pea seedlings will have a higher ratio of chloroplasts? My group tested for the activity of chloroplasts with three different pairs of cell fractions by two conditions of light and dark in three readings. The first two cell fractions, pellet one and two (P1, P2), are the hard sediments found at the bottom of a tube after it has been centrifuged (which are specimen, like the mitochondria and chloroplast, that are isolated from the rest) (Leicht and McAllister, 2016). The last cell fraction used was the supernatant two (S2), which is just the free liquid surrounding the pellet after the centrifuging of P2 (Leicht and McAllister, 2016). To test for this, DCIP (a chloroplast isolation buffer) was used to
ABSTRACT: Chloroplasts carry out photosynthetic processes to meet the metabolic demands of plant cells (Alberts, 2008). They consist of an inner thylakoid membrane and a stroma. (Parent et. al, 2008).In this experiment we demonstrate the unique protein compositions of isolated thylakoid and stromal fractions from broken and whole spinach chloroplasts. Because these compartments carry out different metabolic processes, we confirm our hypothesis that performing SDS-PAGE on these fractions will result in distinct patterns on the gels. In isolating and analyzing nucleic acid from broken, whole, and crude chloroplast samples we demonstrate that genes for photosynthetic protein psbA are found in chloroplast DNA, while genes for photosynthetic enzyme
The high rate of absorbance change in blue light in the chloroplast samples (Figure 1) can be attributed to its short wavelength that provides a high potential energy. A high rate of absorbance change is also observed in red light in the chloroplast samples (Figure 1), which can be accredited to the reaction centre’s preference for a wavelength of 680nm and 700nm – both of which fall within the red light range (Halliwell, 1984). Green light showed low rates of photosynthetic activity and difference in change in absorbance at 605nm in the chloroplast samples (Figure 1) as it is only weakly absorbed by pigments, and is mostly reflected. The percentage of absorption of blue or red light by plant leaves is about 90%, in comparison to the 70–80% absorbance in green light (Terashima et al, 2009). Yet despite the high absorbance and photosynthetic activity of blue light, hypocotyl elongation was suppressed and biomass production was induced (Johkan et al, 2012), which is caused by the absorption of blue light by the accessory pigments that do not transfer the absorbed energy efficiently to the chlorophyll, instead direction some of the energy to other pathways. On the other hand, all of the red light is absorbed by chlorophyll and used efficiently, thus inducing hypocotyl elongation and the expansion in leaf area (Johkan et al, 2012).
The exact cause of dyslexia is unknown. However, researchers believe dyslexia is a reading disability with underlying genetic, developmental and neurological causes (8). People with dyslexia have trouble reading despite normal or high intelligence and exposure to sufficient language instruction. Specific reading problems apparent in dyslexia include reversal of words and letters, difficulty in pronouncing new words, difficulty in making a distinction between similarities and differences in words (on for no), and difficulty in discerning differences in letter sounds (ten, tin) (2).
The mitochondria has an eggshape structure. The mitochondria consists of an inner and outer membrane. The outer membrane is what shapes the organelle to its egglike shape. The inner membrane which folds inward makes a set of "shelves" or cristae that allow the reactions of the mitochondria to take place. The more the mitochondria makes these reactions the more the inner membrane folds.
Overview of Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis Written by Cheril Tague South University Online Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis are both cellular processes in which organisms use energy. However, photosynthesis converts the light obtained from the sun and turns it into a chemical energy of sugar and oxygen. Cellular respiration is a biochemical process in which the energy is obtained from chemical bonds from food. They both seem the same since they are essential to life, but they are very different processes and not all living things use both to survive ("Difference Between Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration", 2017). In this paper I will go over the different processes for photosynthesis and the processes for cellular respiration and how they are like each other and how they are essential to our everyday life.
The process of photosynthesis is present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and is the process in which cells transform energy in the form of light from the sun into chemical energy in the form of organic compounds and gaseous oxygen (See Equation Below). In photosynthesis, water is oxidized to gaseous oxygen and carbon dioxide is reduced to glucose. Furthermore, photosynthesis is an anabolic process, or in other words is a metabolism that is associated with the construction of large molecules such as glucose. The process of photosynthesis occurs in two steps: light reactions and the Calvin cycle. The light reactions of photosynthesis take place in the thylakoid membrane and use the energy from the sun to produce ATP and NADPH2. The Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast and consumes ATP and NADPH2 to reduce carbon dioxide to a sugar.
Dr. W. Pringle-Morgan originally described dyslexia as “congenital word blindness,” in that he had a patient who was normal in all learning aspects other than his pronounced inability to read (Morgan, 1896). In order to test the severity of the child’s deficiency, Dr. Morgan devised a simple test to determine reading/writing capabilities in the patient, noting from his results that the patient was incapable of writing words exactly as they were spoken, as well as not being able to recognize all but the simplest words from a text. Other skills tested (arithmetic and algebra) fell within acceptable ranges of capability, and no other obvious deficiencies or defects were present. It was speculated that the child suffered a congenital condition similar to that described in adults to be “word blindness,” as his “visual memory for recalling written words” was absent. Anecdotal evidence, provided by the patient’s father in regards to teaching his son the alphabet, indicated that the child did suffer from an inability to map symbols (letters) to his memory for recall.
There are two types of therapy in CBT, cognitive therapy and behavioral therapy. The dissatisfaction with psychoanalytical approaches led to the birth of behavioral therapy. Eventually, there was a need to test hypotheses, that is when cognitive therapy joined behavioral therapy forming CBT. In CBT clinicians believe that psychopathology starts with an event. After the event takes place a person develops thoughts and feelings about the event, their thoughts and feelings about the event is the rational for their behavior which is the action. In terms of treatment there are several types of mechanism of change. Some example of mechanism of change are extinction, modeling and exposure. Mechanism of change is what causes the client to change their thoughts, feelings and
Dyslexia is one of several distinct learning disabilities. It is a specific language based disorder of constitutional origin characterized by difficulties in single word decoding, usually reflecting insufficient phonological processing abilities. These difficulties in single word decoding are often unexpected in relation to age and other cognitive and academic abilities; they are not the result of generalized developmental disability or sensory impairment. Dyslexia is manifest by ...
Dyslexia is a language based learning disorder that is grounded in the neurobiology of the brain. The disorder interferes with the processing and comprehension of both spoken and written language. Often there are other associated symptoms such as poor spelling, writing, handwriting and occasionally arithmetic (1). People do not read or write backwards as is depicted by the media. Nor is it a disorder of laziness or lack of intelligence.
According to Hardin-Simmons University, the answer is Phonological awareness. Phonological awareness is the way a person sees something and how they identify it like words. There are many signs of dyslexia like reading slow, spelling words wrong, having a hard time reading, and many different thing according to age. “Dyslexia can’t be “cured” – it is lifelong” (Shaywitz). There are ways to help the effects of dyslexia but there is no stopping it. According to The Yale Center for Dyslexia and Creativity, dyslexia is very common and affects 20 percent of the population. There are becoming more people than in the past to have this condition. This condition is becoming more well known. Although dyslexia affects the way people read, it does not affect their creativity and ingenuity. “The characteristic of dyslexia changes depending on the age group and the state of reading” (Bachert). According to Department of Education and Training Victoria, Characteristic features of dyslexia include immature phonological knowledge, verbal memory, and processing speeds. There are many different characteristics of dyslexia. People that have dyslexia will not be as fast as others are. According to Dyslexia Help at the University of Michigan, dyslexia is more than a reading problem, it is a language-based learning disability. If dyslexia is discovered at an younger age, it will be harder for them to learn how to read. Dyslexia is not just
Whether we graduate from highschool or college we all hope to find a challenging career that will propel us forward in today's society. For those suffering from dyslexia this only adds to the frustration and fears associated with seeking employment. Many adults with dyslexia or other forms of learning disabilities never disclose their disability in interviews or once employed for fear of being discriminated against. Several investigators have noted, however, that many persons with learning disabilities adjust well to the demands and complexities of adulthood. (Greenbaum et al. 1996). The basic cause of dyslexia is still not known, however, much research is being done to determine the problems underlying dyslexia. In many cases, dyslexia is highly inherited. Studies have shown a number of genes that may set the stage for its development. Characteristics of dyslexia are now more apparent to educators than ever before. Early educational interventions are helping individuals to manage their dyslexia. There have been some studies that attend to accommodating persons with learning disabilities in post-secondary and occupational settings. Only a few articles will be reviewed having been found worthy of this subject. However, before reviewing the articles, in order to gain a greater understanding of the types of learning disabilities people face lets define one of the most significant learning problems: dyslexia. A Type of Learning Disability: What is Dyslexia? The word dyslexia is derived form the Greek "dys" (meaning poor or inadequate) and "lexis" (works or language). Dyslexia is a learning disability characterized by problems in expressive or receptive, oral or written language. Problems may emerge in r...
Millions of Americans show symptoms of dyslexia. However, few people actually realize the causes, effects, fears, and treatments associated with this disorder; making, those who are dyslexic to feel isolated and misunderstood. Dyslexia is defined by the Merriam Webster Dictionary as, “a variable often familial learning disability involving difficulties in acquiring and processing language that is typically manifested by a lack of proficiency in reading, spelling, and writing”. This definition only begins to explain this complex disorder and the vast lack of proficiency it causes the human brain.
From my reading I learned that cellular respiration is a multi-step metabolic reaction type process that takes place in each living organism 's cell rather it be plant or animal. It’s my understanding that there are two types of cellular respiration, one called aerobic cellular respiration which required oxygen and anaerobic cellular respiration that does not require oxygen. In the anaerobic cellular respiration process, unlike the aerobic process oxygen is not required nor is it the last electron acceptor there by producing fewer ATP molecules and releasing byproducts of alcohol or lactic acid. The anaerobic cellular respiration process starts out exactly the same as anaerobic respiration, but stops part way through due to oxygen not being