For many years researchers have endeavoured to enhance current methods in cervical screening which utilises the Papanicolaou smear (also known as a Pap smear). Limitations in the smear have caused major emphasis to increase sensitivity and specificity whilst also creating an automated screening procedure. The Pap smear was initially introduced in the context of cervical screening in the detection of pre-cancerous lesions of the cervix in 1940’s (Koss, 1989). Cervical screens are vital as research has shown 90% of women with invasive cervical carcinoma could be prevented by finding any lesions early (Grace. et al. (2001). Cervical screening in the UK presented with an annual reduction of 7% but the Pap smear also possesses many limitations such as high error rates (Graff. et al. 1987) Figure 1.
Figure 1: Age Standardised Incidence and Mortality from Cervical Cancer, England (Cervical Screening Programme Review, 1999)
Rates per 100,000 per annum - directly age standardised using the European standard population.
Cervical cancer possesses a high incidence rate of cancers among women. The uterine cervical cancer can be assessed at the squamo-columnar junction and the transformational zone. Within this site there is continuous metaplastic changes, between the squamous epithelium of the ectocervix and the columnar epithelium of the endocervix.
Metaplastic changes mainly occurs at puberty and first pregnancy, therefore most cases are seen in women under 30. Every women can develop cervical cancer, however there are factors that can increase the risk such as infections like HPV or the use of oral contraceptives (Schiffman. 1995).
The Pap stain was designed upon the knowledge of tumour cells lose property which can be readily dislo...
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... of 25 showed to be less effective whilst the same was understood testing after 64 if there is no history of cancers.
Tests for cervical cancers and diseases are always progressing and the next step in identification molecular biomarkers. The use of these panels should coexist alongside the current LCB infrastructure increasing the chances of early diagnosis. HPV and its viral onco genes E6 and E7 has been found in 99+% of cervical neoplasia when both genes are expressed by damaging the DNA engineering dis-regulation (Walboomers. et al. 1999) (Giannoudis. et al. 2001). Other tumour molecules and proteins such as Ccd6 and p16(INNK4A) are over expressed in pre-cancer and malignant lesion production by un-restricted proliferation of malignant cells (Astbury, 2006). These markers could increase time periods between tests by increasing sensitivity (Hoyer. et al. 2005).
The Papanicolaou test in medical terms can also be known as or be called as the Pap smear, pap test, or smear test. It is a microscopic examination of cell .The purpose of this test is to perceive occurring of precancerous or existing cancerous cells in the opening uterus of the cervix. It also discerns asymmetry in the cells of the cervix (the bottom, narrow end of the uterus.)[1]
The Pap smear had the potential to decrease that death rate by 70 percent or more, but there were two things standing in its way: first, many women- like Henrietta-simply didn’t get the test; and, second, even when they did, few doctors knew how to interpret the results accurately, because they didn’t know what the various stages of cervical cancer looked like under a microscope.
The genital examination can be uncomfortable for both the patient as well as for the healthcare professional. Therefore, for us as clinicians, it is crucial first to examine our personal biases as well as personal beliefs that make us feel unease before performing a genital exam. Being aware of our body language, is essential, as the patient could feel or sense of being judge, especially special populations such as those affected by obesity, mental, physical disability. Furthermore, it is crucial that as advanced clinicians understand that for most patients this experience may be a significant source of discomfort and anxiety. Consequently, as healthcare providers, it is important to make the patients feel as comfortable as possible to reduce their stress, while at the same time take this opportunity to educate them on sexual preventive measures and conditions that may affect them in the present and future.
What is the human papillomavirus (HPV)? According to the US government’s National Cancer Institute, human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are a collection of more than one hundred viruses, many types having the ability to grow tumors or polyps that are malignant and others benign. Certain of the viruses are capable of forming genital warts. The HPVs that cause the common warts on hands and feet are different from those that cause growth in the throat or genital area (Human Papillomavirus). Professors Joe Cummins and Dr. Mae-Wan Ho inform us that some types are associated with cancer, and are called “high risk” HPVs. Of the more than one hundred types of HPVs, over thirty can be passed on through sexual contact. Most HPV infections occur without any symptoms and go away without treatment over the course of a few years. However, HPV infection sometimes persists for many years, with or without causing detectable cell abnormalities. Infection from “High risk” types of HPV is the main cause of cervical cancer. Pap smears have also led to earlier detection of these infections. Nearly all women who are sexually active will have HPV inf...
Potter, J. E., White, K., Hopkins, K., Amastae, J., & Grossman, D. (2010). Clinic Versus Over-
Within this set, the investigators randomized how many trials the participants would complete: 7, 10, or 13. Then, they were giving the chance to do 3 or 6 more trials and were ask to record their results.
Providing the assistance and showing love for others on a daily basis; is the best way to show people you appreciate and care for them. Accordingly, my dream career (a Registered nurse) is specialized to work in many different areas in the nursing field. Emotional stability, compassion, and caring attributes are very important, often time nurses’ deal with stresses including emergencies and human suffering. Being a Registered nurse you are required to
The Phase I trial will be discussed here as it pertains to the topic at hand. The typical treatment for cervical cancer if surgery is not a viable option – like if the cancer has spread, then called locally advanced cervical cancer – is chemotherapy and radiation treatment at the same time. This phase I clinical trial is simply looking to add ipilimumab to this regimen, but once the chemo/radiation has been completed (LACC article). Chemo and radiation destroy tumor cells, which causes tumor-associated antigens to be released. Once released, these antigens are exogenous (outside the cell) and will be presented to helper T cells to initiate an immune response.
Over the years, the fight against ovarian cancer has proven to be even more difficult due to the cancer being asymptomatic at its early stages. For this reason, there are constantly late diagnoses made on women who unfortunately develop this cancer (Stack).... ... middle of paper ... ...
Three years ago, I volunteer at the Florida hospital. It was a amazing experience to see how everyone was working together to save lives. Ever since then I wanted to become a registered nurse because of my compassion, and I want to care for people. I like giving advice and emotional support to others. Nursing is my passion in life.
Papillary Carcinoma a lot of times grows very slowly. Typically mature in only one of the lobes of the thyroid gland, in patients under the age of forty-five. Cancer often spreads to the lymph nodes in the neck, still resulting in treatment which is usually successful and is rarely fatal. Papillary carcinoma is most likely to affect women that are in their childbearing stages in life. According to MedicineNet.com, “About eight of ten thyro...
Since I was fourteen I wanted to become a nurse, I have always had an overwhelming desire to help people, it is what makes me feel fulfilled, and this is the reason I decided to follow this career path. My personal philosophy on nursing is that all nurses need to want
From a young age, I was drawn to the healthcare field, not because the amount of money doctors, nurses and other health professionals made, but because of the dedication and contentment I saw on their faces helping someone in need. Growing up everyone wanted to become a doctor or a nurse and as a little child being a doctor or a nurse was a profession many parents wanted their child to pursue as a career. Needless to say, I fell into that category because I had high hopes that one day I will become a nurse. However, that dream came to a halt.
Nursing is an amazing career and I am beyond blessed and excited to go through this journey in my life to become a nurse! There is nothing I love more than doing my best to help people. I would love to continue my education someday and further myself into another career branched off of nursing. I cannot wait to see the future that is in store for me!
Becoming a Nurse has been a goal of mine for several years because i love helping people.