Type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and obesity are both emerging pandemics in the 21st century. One consequence of obesity is an increased risk of developing T2DM. One’s relative risk of T2DM increases as his/her body mass index (BMI) increases above 23. T2DM is the most common disease among the U.S. population, accounting for approximately 90% of such cases, usually diagnosed in adulthood, and in most cases as a result of overweight or obesity. T2DM involves a combination of insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency and may not require treatment with external insulin, especially at early stages (Fowler, 2007). Consequently, the goal of treatment is to achieve strict control of blood sugar (glucose) levels. The extent to which etiological factors may be relevant for adults with T2DM is not clear, but research suggest a theoretical model of potential pathways between disordered eating behaviors and T2DM. Moreover, several studies have demonstrated that change in lifestyle and sedentary habits could lead to decreased incidence of progression to T2DM (Ismail, 2008).
Bio/Psycho/Social Aspects of the Illnesses
T2DM is a heterogeneous disorder thus the clinical expression of the disorder requires both genetic and environmental factors. One theory concerning its etiology is that T2DM is the result of the evolution of a thrifty genotype that had survival benefits in the past but is detrimental in the current environment (Ismail, 2008). An opposing theory states that the disease represents an adult metabolic response to fetal malnutrition. Hyperglycemia in T2DM results from absolute or relative insulin deficiency. Most often insulin deficiency is attributable to an inability to adequately compensate for insulin resistance. Insulin resistan...
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Diabetes is a disease that affects the body’s ability to produce or respond to insulin, a hormone that allows blood glucose (blood sugar) to enter the cells of the body and be used for energy. Diabetes falls into two main categories: type 1, or juvenile diabetes, which usually occurs during childhood or adolescence, and type 2, or adult-onset diabetes, the most common form of the disease, usually occurring after age 40. Type 1 results from the body’s immune system attacking the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. The onset of juvenile diabetes is much higher in the winter than in the summer. This association has been repeatedly confirmed in diabetes research. Type 2 is characterized by “insulin resistance,” or an inability of the cells to use insulin, sometimes accompanied by a deficiency in insulin production. There is also sometimes a third type of diabetes considered. It is gestational diabetes, which occurs when the body is not able to properly use insulin during pregnancy. Type 2 diabetes encompasses nine out of 10 diabetic cases. Diabetes is the fifth-deadliest disease in the United States, and it has no cure. The total annual economic cost of diabetes in 2002 was estimated to be $132 billion, or one out of every 10 health care dollars spent in the United States. Diabetes risk factors can fall into three major categories: family history, obesity, and impaired glucose tolerance. Minority groups and elderly are at the greatest risk of developing diabetes.
The links between obesity and diabetes are well recognized worldwide as obesity continues to be a significant public health burden especially among children and adolescents in the United States. Research says that almost one-third of children and adolescents are classified as overweight or obese. The potential roles of the vicious cycle are seen in the context of current trends in obesity and Type 2
Addiction is a dependence on a substance where the individual who is affected feels defenseless and unable to stop the obsession to use a substance or prevent a particular behavior. Millions of Americans have addictions to drugs, alcohol, nicotine, and even to behaviors such as obsessive gambling. Pharmacotherapy is a treatment process in which a counselor can use a particular drug to counter act an addictive drug or behavior. Not all counselors agree with this type of treatment. However in order to provide a client with an ethical treatment and unbiased opinions they should be made aware of all scientific evidence of different treatment options. “Thus, attention to addiction pharmacotherapy is an ethical mandate no matter what prejudices a counselor may have” (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2008, p. 196). Some particular pharmacotherapy’s a counselor may use for the treatment of addiction are Bupropion (Wellbutrin, Zyban), Disulfiram (Antabuse), Naltrexone (ReVia, Depade), Methadone (Dolophine), and Buprenorphine (Temgesic, Suboxone).
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Diabetes is a chronic disorder of metabolism characterized by a partial or complete deficiency of the hormone insulin. With this, there are metabolic adjustments that occur everywhere in the body. Specific to this child is Type One Diabetes. This is characterized by demolition of the pancreatic beta cells, which produce insulin. Because of this, it leads to complete insulin deficiency. Within Type One diabetes, there are two different forms. First there is immune-mediated deficiency, which typically results from an autoimmune destruction of the beta cells. The second type is called idiopathic type one, in which the cause is unknown. (Wong, Hockenberry, Wilson, 2015)
Diabetes mellitus, better known as type 2 diabetes, is a chronic disease that until recently used to occur generally in adults over 40-50 years, so it was known as adult diabetes. However, the diagnosis of this pathology in children and adolescents is nowadays more frequent, due to the alarming increase of childhood obesity that has been registered in the western
The tobacco industry is important to the economy. In 1991, worldwide tobacco sales exceeded $59.8 billion and in 1992 the industry was rated as one of the top one hundred advertisers (Pechmann and Ratneshwar, 1994). However, there are high prices to pay - socially, economically, and personally - as a result of this industry. Annual mortality figures indicate that cigarette smoking is the number one cause of preventable death in the United States. An estimated 390,000 people die each year of smoke related illnesses, which is greater than the combined mortality for cocaine, crack, AIDS, homicide, suicide, and alcohol abuse (Botvin, G., Baker, Botvin, E., Dusenbury, Cardwell, and Diaz, 1993).
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