I. INTRODUCTION
The human body contains 4 to 6 liters of blood, depending upon the body size. The main components of blood can be classified as the cell free plasma (50-60%) and RBCs (40-50%), while WBCs accounts for only 1% of total blood volume. In order to maintain its vital properties, it must be refrigerated at cold temperature, i.e. +4◦C and it must be cooled to below +10◦C during transportation. If the blood is stored or transported outside of the required temperature for a prolonged time, it reduces the oxygen-carrying ability to the tissues during transfusion. The various factors that affects the blood when it is exposed above or below the freezing temperature are the risk of bacterial contamination, red blood cells rupture, release of hemoglobin and transfusion of such blood can be fatal.
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The severity of hypothermia has been classified, as moderate with 32–34◦C, as mild 34–36◦C and as severe hypothermia when the temperature is less than 32◦C [2]. Intense shivering may occur between 34 and 36◦C which increases the oxygen demand and metabolic rate [3]. The hypothermic patients may be in a state of abnormal breathing and deep tendon reflexes. Changes in cardiac and coagulation systems such as the ventricle becomes irritable below the threshold temperature for ventricular fibrillation, i.e. 25 to 28◦C [4]. The adverse effects of hypothermia in the injured patient are shown in Table1
Maintaining normal core body temperature (normothermia) in patients within perioperative environments is both a challenging and important aspect to ensure patient safety, comfort and positive surgical outcomes (Tanner, 2011; Wu, 2013; Lynch, Dixon & Leary, 2010). Normorthermia is defined as temperatures from 36C to 38C, and is maintained through thermoregulation which is the balance between heat loss and heat gain (Paulikas, 2008). When normothermia is not maintained within the perioperative environments, and the patient’s core body temperature drops below 36C, they are at risk of developing various adverse consequences due to perioperative hypothermia (Wagner, 2010). Perioperative hypothermia is classified into three
The normal core temperature in adults ranges between 36.5°C and 37.5°C and hypothermia can be defined as core body temperature less than 36°C.(ref 1)
While the respiratory and cardiovascular systems are most reliant on one another, all body systems require a functioning circulatory cycle in order to thrive. Blood circulation and consistent transfer of oxygen to cells is required to maintain cell and tissue life. Disturbances to this process will cause cells and tissues to die (Red Cross 48). This state of balance and functioning body systems is referred to as homeostasis, defined as a “condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment due to constant interaction of body’s many regulatory processes” (Tortura 8). Changes or disruptions to homeostasis are regulated by the Endocrine and Nervous systems of the body. The endocrine system is made up of glands placed throughout the body
The Hematologic System is regarded as the body’s system that regulates the movement of nutrients, molecules (macro and micro molecules), and oxygen to tissues and metabolic waste products and carbon dioxide out of the tissues (Colbert, 2009). The overall role of the hematologic system is to deliver substances needed for cellular metabolism, temperature regulation, defend the body from injury and microbial infections, and maintain the homeostatic balance or acid-base chemistry of the blood and fluid-electrolyte balance. The Hematologic System is principally made up of the blood, blood vessels, and primary organs that manufacture blood cells such as the bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, liver, and thymus gland (Ignatavicius & Workman, 2009). Blood is made up of three distinct components: red blood cells, white blood cells, and plasma, and its role is to transport necessary substances for metabolism (nutrients, hormones and oxygen) to cells and to remove metabolic waste products and carbon dioxide, regulation of body temperature and fluid balance, and protect the body from infections. Blood vessels simply aid the transportation of blood throughout the body, simply in and out of the heart. Spleen on its part is the largest lymphatic organ and functions as the blood filtration system and reservoir, site for fetal hematopoiesis, and mounts immune responses that act against invading infections. Bone marrow is another important component of the hematologic system, and its role is to synthesize new blood cells (Red blood cells white blood cells, and platelets) that constitute a healthy blood count while the liver functions by detoxifying the blood (Colbert, 2009).
Plasma is one of the three components of blood and contains all the clotting factors found in blood. From the plasma many different products are manufactured, these are fresh frozen plasma or when the plasma is split into its different components. Plasma is obtained from voluntary donors who donate just plasma via an apheresis machine or they donate whole blood which then gets centrifuged to separate the plasma from the rest of the blood.
Blood is a specialized body fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells — such as nutrients and oxygen — and transports waste products away from those same cells. It can be referred to as a liquid connective tissue. It consists of solid elements made up of RBCs, WBCs and platelets (commonly referred to as the formed elements of the blood), suspended in a fluid medium, plasma which contains, water (about 92%), dissolved proteins, lipids, glucose, mineral ions, hormones, organic acids, urea and other wastes,
The topic chosen is blood transfusion. Blood transfusion is one of the most common procedures that are performed in the hospital setting to save lives and help improve one’s health. People who have serious injuries may need blood transfusions to replace the lost of blood. Some of the injuries are more critical than others and require an enormous amount of blood. In addition, many people have illnesses that prevent their body from making blood properly. Blood circulates in the body providing oxygen and nutrients and collects waste so it can be eliminated by the body; therefore, it is an important factor for everyone’s lives (Lewis Medical surgical nursing). Blood should be carefully transfused. Although it is a lifesaver, nurses should follow the proper procedure and strict guidelines to safely transfuse the blood. One sample error during transfusion can cause someone life.These situations can lead to death, especially in serious cases. So nurses must have knowledge and understand the purpose of blood transfusion.
The body can inhibit this blood flow to only 0.5-1.0 cc/min/100 cc in full constriction, which in comparison to the normal 80-90 cc/min/100 cc during full dilation is a major decline [9]. The decrease in blood flow causes the extremities to become colder and colder which induces a condition called Hunter’s Response, this causes the blood vessels to switch between dilating for a period of time and then constricting. The body does this so that it can preserve as much function in the extremities as possible whilst still maintaining a healthy temperature in the centre of the body. However, the brain senses this as the body undergoing hyperthermia and then constricts blood vessels permanently to insure cold blood isn’t being returned to internal organs [2]. When the body restricts blood flow to the extremities they’re no longer receiving the warmth that regular blood flow provides, this causes the tissue to drop below 0oC. Skin that becomes this cold undergoes four phases resulting in frostbite. First to occur is the pre-freeze phase where the cold results in the blood becoming more viscous, blood vessels constrict and causes leakage of endothelial plasma. Secondly the freeze phase, this is when ice crystals form in the extracellular spaces of the
...warming protect any affected body part from direct pressure and ensure the patient is well-hydrated. Do not rub frostbitten skin, attempt to rewarm using a fire or stove, rewarm if there is any possibility of refreezing, and allow the tissue to refreeze if it is successfully thawed (Simon, Bryan).
The Mayo Clinic defines a blood transfusion as “a routine medical procedure in which donated blood is provided to you through a narrow tube placed within a vein in your arm”. The first human blood transfusion on record was conducted by Dr. Jean-Baptiste Denys, a French physician during the late 1600’s. Although Denys’ transfusions weren’t sound proof and often written off as unorthodox, he unknowingly ushered in a new era of medicine and laid the foundation for modern advances in Hematology. I choose this topic because I volunteer to donate blood four times a year alongside thousands of other people. On average these donations help save 4.5 million Americans that would die in a years’ time without a blood transfusion. These generous people
The company provides innovative solutions to combat postoperative conditions such as hypothermia. Medical research indicates that 60 to 80 percent of all postoperative recovery room patients are clinically hypothermic. Hypothermia is caused by a patient’s exposure to cold operating room temperatures that are required by surgeons to control infection, and for the personal comfort of the surgeon. Hypothermia can also be a result of heat loss due to evaporation of the fluids used to scrub patients, evaporation from exposed bowel, and breathing of dry anesthetic gases. Dr. Augustine’s personal experience in the operating room convinced him that there was a need for a new system to warm patients after surgery.
The study of structure, function and pathological disorders in blood is called “Haematology”. Blood consists of 55% plasma and 45% blood cells. Plasma is a mixture of 7% protein, 91% water and 2% other solutes. The types of proteins present in blood are albumin, globulin, and fibrinogen. Other remaining solutes consist of ions, nutrients, gases and respiratory substances and waste products. On th...
This theory takes into question whether or not a person is judged by their actions or their character. If a person is judged by their actions, then the theory states that they are judged ethically. If a person is judged by their character, then they are judged morally. This theory states that there is always a constant internal fight between a person’s ethics and morals. Transfusions are usually performed on patients going in for surgery or those suffering from injury such as loss of blood in a car accident or disease. Cancer is a prime candidate for the use of blood transfusions since it impacts the organs that affect your body’s blood count thereby greatly reducing red and white blood cell count. Whether it is a blood illness, burn, or liver failure various parts of blood can be used to counteract the damage done by such conditions using either red or white blood cells along with platelets. While blood transfusions play a vital role in combating both illness and injury with success these procedures do have some form of risk involved that any blood recipient must take into
Recent studies have shown patients suffering from cardiac arrest are treated with mild therapeutic hypothermia is now recognized as standard therapy in patients resuscitated from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) leading to unexpected death 1 in 1500 adults each year in this hi tech world (Zheng et al 2001). Therapeutic hypothermia (TH) may increase survival and reduce the amount of neurologic damage after cardiac arrest. According to the recent guidelines, comatose survivors of out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation cardiac arrest should be cooled with internal or external cooling techniques to a target temperature of 32 °C to 34 °C (patients with in-hospital cardiac arrest or other primary rhythms may also be cooled. This target temperature should be maintained for 12 to 24 hours, and after this cooling period the patients should be rewarmed at a rate of 0.25 °C to 0.5 °C hour to normothermia. Significant survival and functional benefit impelling increased acceptance of use of TH.
According to KenHub, the blood consists of cells, cell fragment and an aqueous solution(plasma).45% of blood are red blood cells, white blood cell and platelets and the rest are plasma which consists of water, plasma protein and