Introduction “Science aims to give us, in its theories, a literally true story of what the world is like; and acceptance of science theory involves the belief that it is true” (van Frassen 8). This is a quote Bas van Fraassen wrote to demonstrate the position held by scientific realists. One of the most significant features of contemporary science is that it is pervaded with entities that we cannot observe. According to the view of scientific realists, scientific entities like electrons and black holes really do exist. However, the central problem against that position is what arguments are there to doubt the existence of such un-observable entities, when one accepts the existence of chairs and trees? If we can’t directly see them, how do we know if they really do exist, and if so how? In this essay I will put forward the problems that have led to criticisms against scientific realism, and demonstrates how “the problem of unconceived alternatives” pose a more challenging threat than other anti-realist arguments by providing an example relating to Jared Diamond’s geographical determinism. Scientific Realism and Explanation Science realism asserts that science is dedicated to explain the existence of a variety of unobservable entities, and is mostly right in its dedications. Science is based on explaining phenomena that humans observe by postulating entities that humans do not. Many of these explanations are about entities that are too small or too big to be observed. For instance, we cannot see the electrons that illuminate certain patterns on the TV screen, nor planets that do not emit light in the universe. Some entities cannot be observed due to their nature, such as the magnetic field that causes magnetic attractions. Alth... ... middle of paper ... ...mong the world are contributed by the biological differences among peoples, even though there are firm evidences that this position is flawed. In this sense, Diamond’s theory of geographical determinism can be perceived as an example of “unconceived alternatives”. Indeed, Diamond argued that this is a very serious problem for social sciences, not only because it will create an intellectual gap of human history, but also create a more severe moral (or perhaps racist) problem (Diamond 34). In conclusion, although the problem of unconceived alternatives poses a significant threat to scientific realism, at the heart of the matter it is not to undermine science completely, but perhaps to regard scientific theories as “useful conceptual tools” for explaining and predicting the world, instead of literal descriptions of how things stand in nature itself (P. K. Stanford 5).
Jared Diamond, author of the Pulitzer Prize Winning, National Best Selling book Guns, Germs and Steel, summarizes his book by saying the following: "History followed different courses for different peoples because of differences among peoples' environments, not because of biological differences among peoples themselves." Guns, Germs and Steel is historical literature that documents Jared Diamond's views on how the world as we know it developed. However, is his thesis that environmental factors contribute so greatly to the development of society and culture valid? Traditions & Encounters: A Brief Global History is the textbook used for this class and it poses several different accounts of how society and culture developed that differ from Diamond's claims. However, neither Diamond nor Traditions are incorrect. Each poses varying, yet true, accounts of the same historical events. Each text chose to analyze history in a different manner. Not without flaws, Jared Diamond makes many claims throughout his work, and provides numerous examples and evidence to support his theories. In this essay, I will summarize Jared Diamond's accounts of world history and evolution of culture, and compare and contrast it with what I have learned using the textbook for this class.
“History followed different courses for different peoples because of differences among peoples’ environments, not because of biological differences among people themselves.”(Diamond 25) This statement is the thesis for Jared Diamond’s book Guns Germs and Steel the Fates of Human Societies.
In his “Proof of an External World”, Moore puts forth several supported hypotheses in regards to the nature of the existence of things outside the self. Primarily, Moore discusses hands; his argument is that if he can produce two hands then it follows logically that two hands must exist. Furthermore, Moore puts forth the theory that if hands exist then this alone is proof of an external world. In opposition to Moore’s opinions will be found three main arguments: firstly that all of Moore’s evidence is based upon sensory input, secondly that the truth of one fact based on the truth of another fact forms an Epistemic Circle in this case, and finally that the evidence out forth by Moore, even if proved, does not necessarily prove the fact that he is attempting to prove.
We make choices every day, from waking to sleeping our day is composed of choices and the results of these choices. These choices help to shape us to who we are and want to be. But, these results may not be foreseen and may be adverse or favorable depending on the situation. Topics and events in our history ranging from the literacy of common man to unnecessary gun violence were a result of un-foreseen consequences. Our world’s history has been shaped by these consequences forming the world to where we are today.
The word “bias” has always had a negative connotation. Although it is used synonymously with bigotry and prejudice, its meaning is actually more akin to “point of view,” “personal tendency,” or “preference.” Just as every individual has her own worldview, so she has a set of biases. These biases are often observable in a person’s habits, speech, and, perhaps most explicitly, writings. Daniel Boorstin, renowned University of Chicago professor, historian, author, and librarian of Congress, is undeniably biased towards certain cultures in The Discoverers. A book chronicling mankind’s scientific history, its first words are “My hero is Man the Discoverer.” In his telling of “man’s search to know his world and himself,” Boorstin declares that
Science is a way of approaching the world, knowing why and how things around us are occurring. The scientific method allows scientists to be precise and focused. Through that medium, they can determine which hypotheses are consistently supported such that they become theories and which need more modification or rejection. This type of knowing can be tested and quantified. Scientists strive to make their observations as objective as possible, to be devoid of human interest. Scientists try to control all the variables ...
Society, however, is a state towards which humans have naturally evolved, and our continued existence without society is inconceivable. Thus, although determinism is argued successfully from a causal point of view, it is clearly flawed in a practical context as it fails these fundamental aspects of human life.
Rejection of Naïve Realism Naive realism is the way the majority of people are aware of their world, and is based on the assumption that what they are seeing and experiencing is real; that they understand their world through knowledge gained from these experiences. However, certain arguments reject that this world is as familiar as it seems, presenting a need for revision of the naive realist's concept of reality. We discard the idea that the senses offer a reliable window on the world and come to state that our perception is simply a veil that cloaks reality. What we consider to be objective, can be held to be, in fact, highly subjective - a slurred version of reality seen through human bias and constructs, the human mind projecting itself onto what is perceived.
Within this essay there will be a clear understanding of the contrast and comparison between left and right realism, supported by accurate evidence that will support and differentiate the two wings of realism.
Making decisions is a routine in our daily lives, these actions contribute to how we operate in our society. “Why did history take such different evolutionary courses for people of different continents?” was the question that fascinated Diamond to reveal the patterns of human history. According to the professor of Geography at the University of California Los Angeles, Jared Diamond, in his article “Why do some societies make disastrous decisions?” he describes the factors in failures we commit that have led to societal collapses by breaking it down as a road map. The author makes a strong suggest that “First a group may fail to anticipate a problem before the problem actually arrives. Secondly, when the problem arrives, the group may fail to perceive the problem. Then, after they perceive the problem, they may fail even to try to solve the problem.
Skepticism is the view that there is no way to prove that objects exist outside of us. Skeptics hold that we can not distinguish between dreams and reality, and therefore what we take to be true can very well be creations of our minds while we are nothing more than a simple piece of matter, such as a brain sitting in a vat that is connected to a machine that simulates a perfect representation of reality for the “brain” to live in.1 In the excerpt “Proof of an External World” from his essay of the same name, G.E. Moore responds to the skeptic’s argument by attempting to prove the existence of external objects. There are four parts to this paper. Firstly, I will explain Moore’s overall argumentative strategy and how he considers his proof to be rigorous and legitimate. Then, I will present Moore’s proof of the existence of an external world. Thirdly, I will discuss the responses that skeptics may have to Moore’s argument and how Moore defends his proof against the these responses. Finally, I will give my opinion on how efficiently Moore defends his claims against the skeptics’ responses.
According to Jared Diamond’s thesis, global inequity is not determined by cultural differences, or race, but instead, attributed to geography. The conclusion to be drawn from this thesis is, why do specific tactics only work in specific places? Furthermore, how come Western civilization tactics were effective in the Western countries such as Europe, but not effective in countries such as Egypt? All in all, the reason for this is due to the natural geographic disadvantages Egypt had dealt with in comparison to Europe. These two countries differ in plant and animal domestication, and also size as well as population. In addition to that, the terrain and environment of different regions throughout the world have a major impact on the success of civilizations.
Realism claims that what we can review about our surrounding is established in the fact that they absolutely exist. What we believe about gathered information is what we think about the actual world. It states that there is an actual world that assimilates directly with what we think about it.
It is important for people to understand and know what went on in all time periods and how one simple animal cause be the one thing that gets you by each day or how evolving to something greater can either be successful or a disaster depending on where anyone is located. Jared Diamond allowed us to understand how guns, germs and steel helped countries not be so isolated and be open to new technology that helped them prosper to something bigger than what they had. To conclude many nations use the three theories that jared diamond shares so that countries could prosper to something bigger than what they had hence, they also used it to conquer other civilizations so they could gain as much power as they could. To sum up Jared Diamond saw geography more than a way to expand from either east to west but a way to use what they had or what others brought so that they can gain more power while using the theories guns, germs, and steel
According to Hawking and Leonard, Model Dependent Realism “is based on the idea that our brains interpret the input from our sensory organs by making a model of the world. When such a model is successful at explaining events, we tend to attribute to it, and to the elements and concepts that constitute it, the quality of reality or absolute truth.”