Synaptic Transmitters Involved in LSD Administration
The nearly concurrent discovery of serotonin (5-HT) and LSD-25
in the 1950 's encouraged a lot of research to be done on the
relationship between LSD and serotonin, which helped to develop
a greater understanding of the role serotonin plays as a
neurotransmitter in the brain (Nichols, 2004). Today it is
believed that LSD (and other hallucinogens) stimulate 5-HT2A
receptors (Kalat, 2004). Activation of these receptors causes
cortical glutamate levels to increase. This is presumed to be a
result of a "presynaptic receptor-mediated release" from neurons
in the thalumus (Nichols, 2004).
Early studies proposed that LSD antagonized the effects of
serotonin on peripheral tissues. It was later proposed that the
psychoactive properties of LSD may be a result of the blocking
of serotonin receptors in the central nervous system (Nichols,
2004). This theory was short-lived however when it was
discovered that a brominated derivative of LSD (BOL),a potent
serotonin antagonist in peripheral tissues, was found to have
essentially no LSD like effects. In 1961, Freedman found that
systematic use of LSD elevated serotonin content in the brain
(cited in Nichols, 2004). In a later study in 1967, Rosencrans,
et al. reported that LSD also reduced brain levels of acetic
acid (5-HIAA) (cited in Nichols, 2004). The combined findings of
these two studies demonstrated that LSD decreased serotonin
turnover in the brain.
It is now widely accepted that hallucinogen action is primarily
located on receptor 5-HT2A. In a study done in 1955, scientists
found that daily administration of LSD resulted in an almost
complete loss of sensitivity to the drug after 4 days. It is now
believed that this is a result of 5-HT2A receptor down-regulation
(cited in Nichols, 2004). In a later study published in 1985, it
was found that daily LSD administration selectively decreased 5-
HT2 receptor density in rat brains (Nichols, 2004).
Studies have shown that activation of 5-HT2A receptors increase
inhibitory post-synaptic potentials. However, when compared to
serotonin, the maximum effect produced by LSD is 30-50% of that
of serotonin. LSD is therefore a partial agonist, rather than an
antagonist (Nichols, 2004). Antagonists block the action of a
neurotransmitter, whereas agonists mimic or increase the effects
of a neurotransmitter (Kalat, 2004). Conversely, LSD is a weak
agonist when compared to less intoxicating compounds with
stronger behavioral influences. Therefore it is thought that LSD
must either activate another monoamine receptor that works with
During the late 1940's and the 1950's, the Cold War became increasingly tense. Each side accused the other of wanting to rule the world (Walker 388). Each side believed its political and economic systems were better than the other's. Each strengthened its armed forces. Both sides viewed the Cold War as a dispute between right and wron...
LSD was invented in Switzerland by Albert Hofmann, a researcher for Sandoz pharmaceuticals. It did not spontaneously appear among the youth of the Western world as a gift from the God of Gettin’ High. The CIA was on to acid long before the flower children.
Much like the Holocaust, the Armenian Genocide involved the use of concentration camps and violations against natural and human rights. Through the methods of destroying the Armenians, many of them were burnt, drowned in the Black Sea, or poisoned. Despite these horrific events, the Armenian Genocide remained as an undiscussed topic worldwide because once a genocide became evident, other nations were expected to step up and help. In a matter of a few years, the Armenian population had decreased by nearly half of their population due to the uncivil acts of displacement, murders, famine, and more. The Armenian Genocide took place because the Turks felt the Armenians were jeopardising their power because their religion conflicted with the nations bordering them, the Armenians were demanding an abundance o...
Countertransference first introduced by Freud, “as a therapist’s unconscious reaction to a patient’s transference” (Dass-Brailsford, pg. 293, 2007). This concept has since become known as a normal emotional reaction to a client. This reaction that comes from the therapist is a resolved or unresolved conflict within the therapist (Dass-Brailsford, 2007). This has nothing to do with the client but something the client said or did triggered the therapist. If this goes unnoticed, it can be detrimental to the client’s recovery. The therapist may begin to overidentify with the client and lose their sense of hope (Dass-Brailsford, 2007).
Genocide is the deliberate killing of all or part of a racial, ethnic, or religious group. Genocide is carried out through ruthless acts of violence, and oppression. There have been many acts of genocide documented throughout history. In this essay I will focus on the Armenian genocide, specifically how it was carried out and how the Ottoman Empire rationalized their actions.
In 1915 leaders in the Turkish government devised a plan to exterminate and or expel all Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire. There are several different reports varying in content, but it is believed that there were about 2 million Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire at the time of the massacre. By the 1920’s 1.5 of the 2 million Armenians were dead and the majority of the remaining had been deported. Today most historians will classify the events as a genocide ; but to this day the Turkish
With the knowledge of a previous attack against Christian groups, it is surprising the lack of aid that comes from the world. In an article published in 1920 that states “Armenia is a victim both of the war and the peace, persecuted by her enemies and now almost deserted by her friends.” 9 While the Armenians had the sympathy of the world, “the fear of opening the vexing Eastern question... has held back the administration of justice.” 10 Armenia looked to Germany, Russia, Britain, and America but did not find relief. To the Armenians, “no government or nation has ever attempted to stop,” 11 the attacks against them. During these attacks, it is estimated that the Armenian genocide had “one million or 1.5 million victims,” 12 This number is strictly the deaths of Armenians and does not include groups like the Assyrians and Greeks that were also killed during the
The Armenian genocide was the first genocide of Modern World History, but it was not the first time the world saw an ethnic and religious group angry with and persecuting another. The Armenian genocide is special because it was the first time the world saw mass slaughter being planned and executed by government officials. This deliberate slaughter of Armenians has been the focus of many because of its unique persecution of a single ethnic group and the fact that the Turkish government still denies its existence. Although the Armenian genocide took place in the Middle East, it has impacted the entire world. The Armenian genocide happened during World War I. Most known genocides have happened during times of war, because most of the world or the population of the country is so focused on the war, so they do not notice the mass killings going on in their country or in other countries.
When a group or a nation conquers another group or nation, it was common to kill all the men, civilians and soldiers of the conquered group or nation. In the 20th century mass killing increasingly became a part of some nations’ ways to achieve political goals. This was the case in The Armenian Genocide. The Armenian had a massive effect on Armenia as an Empire. It decreased its size and population. Going from seven million to about five million. What’s unfair to the Armenians is that till date, the massacre has not been recognized as a Genocide. The Armenians went through a terrible time during that period, and they are just asking for all that happened to be known to all, just like the Holocaust of the
Genocides have happened multiple times in history, ranging from small genocides to astonishing violent genocides that changed history. The Armenian Genocide was an extreme devastation of the Armenians in 1915 that was an unbelievable part of history. The Armenian Genocide happened in the Ottoman Empire and all started with the Turks hatred for the Armenians who they didn’t even want to have a say in the government. After the Turks seized power from the weak Ottoman Empire sultan, they changed the government and got extreme support to avoid external overthrow. The Turkish turned to extreme nationalism and really only allowed Turkism, and saw Armenians as a roadblock in their way, which lead to the massacre of Armenians. The Armenian Genocide was obviously outstanding, but when compared to other genocides like the Holocaust, similarities can be determined. The Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust can distinctly be compared by the discrimination, method of oppression, and lack of help from the U.S. involved in the two genocides.
When people hear genocide they normally think of the Holocaust which was the persecution of Jews by the Nazi’s. This took place under Adolf Hitler’s rule but there have been other genocides throughout history. The Armenian Genocide is one of the many that have taken place. It took place in the Ottoman Empire between the years of 1914 to 1918 (“Armenian” Armenian). It started when the “Young Turks” took control of the government (Beecroft). The Holocaust and Armenian genocide are similar in the reasons that started them, but they are different in who was involved and how the two genocides were executed.
In 1943, Albert Hofman took the first “acid trip,” from accidentally ingesting his creation known as LSD, or lysergic acid diethylamide. Hofman reported his experience of seeing amazing pictures, fantastic shapes, and effervescent colors. Since then, hallucinogenic drugs have widely spread across the drug market. Why are hallucinogenic drugs used so much across the United States, as well as the rest of the World? What is it about these drugs that alter people’s decisions and consciousness? Why is it that some people would rather spend their nights buying and using these drugs than any other alternative? It is simply for the astounding effects that these drugs can offer one’s mind and alter their moods. The popularity and strength of hallucinogenic drugs have created a cultural phenomenon across the United States. How have the effects of hallucinogenic drugs, such as mushrooms, acid, and ecstasy, affected the American population?
In conclusion, workers should balancing theirs relax time and work time unless employee cannot avoid stress. This will help us to reduce the chance to get stressed and forget in 21st century’s problem. Stress in the workplace is caused by work and workload. Employees are harmed emotionally and physically by workplace stress. There are two factors of stress in the workplace which are internal and external. When you are relaxing at home, just forget the problems at work. This is the only time you have to relax and being peaceful. Lastly, stress always brings negative attitude and affects your health, so relax as long as you can.
Everyday, there are workers who come home from their jobs with a high amount of health issues. Headaches, aching muscles, exhaustion, and many more health issues have workers wondering why this is happening. All of these symptoms can be linked to stress in the workplace. Job stress has become more of a problem than ever before. Numerous studies show that job stress is the major source of stress for American adults and that it has escalated progressively over the past few decades (“Workplace Stress,” 2004). Stress has become more common and costly in the workplace not only for the workers, but also the companies. What is considered stress in the workplace? Many companies everyday are dealing with issues related to stress in the workplace. For example, the Blackpool Fylde and Wyre NSH Trust Foundation Hospital noticed there were issues with stress when people began calling out sick. Their consultant for occupational health began to see a pattern of worker stress that might be the case. With stress being such a big issue in the workplace, are there ways a company can decrease the amount of stress?
Long – term stress can even require the brain, leaving you more vulnerable to anxiety, and depression; it can be a main cause of moodiness and frustration. Many of us are aware of the physical symptoms of stress-muscle pain, rapid breathing or an increased pulse. At the same time, they also suffer from emotional of stress which can be like roller coaster of highs or lows. emotional effects rang from emotional overeating to a feeling of being overwhelmed and pressure. stress impact many other components, which leads to difficulties in making decisions, loss sense humor, poorer concentration, negative thinking. As can be seen, stress nearly brings serious effects to people. Apart from the effects above, it can be the main reason which creates your decreased productivity at work. stress makes people less control their pace work, which leads to dissatisfaction. about 40% employees said that they are burned out because of work-related stress and loss $300 billion each year in the workplace . In addition, your relationship with people around also become worsens because of your stress. In fact, stress makes people puzzled and their life can undergo a considerable