Expert Systems: The Past, Present and Future of Knowledge-based Systems
Expert Systems were invented as a way to decrease the reliance by corporations on human "experts" -- people who apply reasoning and experience to make judgements in a specific field, such as medicine, insurance underwriting or the operation of a power-plant. Hence, an expert system should include a database of facts and a way of reasoning about them. In many, but not all, applications it is also helpful to have a way for the system to reason with probabilities or non-Boolean truth values. Expert systems are also sometimes referred to a "knowledge-based systems".
In classical AI many different reasoning methods have been tried. A few of the common ones are "forward
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... if the effective domain decompositions are not known and the available domain knowledge is limited to the set of allowable actions and constraints. An example of such a problem is maze traversal, where the knowledge about the structure of the maze is not available a priori.
"Class 2. These are the problems where problem solving task-reduction rules are known. However, the overall problem-solving process is not structured. Many game-playing machines (bridge, backgammon, etc) are examples.
"Class 3. Problems where the problem-solving process is well-structured, while the resulting plan exhibits flexibility... Examples of such problems are cooking instructions and trip planning.
"Class 4 problems are the problems where both the problem-solving strategy and the resulting plan have a fixed unalterable architecture. In this case, the solution is usually in the form of plan parameters that then fit into the predefined plan schema. An example of such a plan could be crop management planning." (Martínez 146-147)
Classes 4 and 3 are especially amenable to implementation as expert-systems, but some of the prototypical systems fell into Class 2.
Early
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In business environments, when computers were first invented, special individuals (computer operators) had the responsibility of "interpreting" the computer's output. The same people sometimes had to "fix" or "prepare" input to the computer as well; they might have to punch paper cards, or type up data-files a certain way, or patch values into a program to reflect current conditions. However, as computers became more widespread and powerful, and more people became "computer-literate", the artificial human layer became insupportable. To the extent that expert systems were only an attempt to soften the human-machine interface, they went in the wrong direction. The typical expert system asked questions in a predetermined order according to what the original expert thought was important, until a conclusion could be reached. Some companies used their expert systems to hide proprietary business processes from lower-level employees; legally, this became indefensible. Some users soon found that an expert system was too slow, and it was relegated to merely a training-function for new
To fully examine the factors that led to the United States to drop an atomic bomb on the city of Nagasaki, one can look at the event as a result of two major decisions. The first decision concerned the use of newly developed nuclear weapons in lieu of other military techniques to secure a timely Japanese surrender. The second decision was to use several of these weapons instead of only one. Although the Truman administration displayed little hesitation or ambivalence over the decision to use atomic weapons (Walker, 51), it is important to examine what factors contributed to these swift actions.
This investigation assesses President Harry Truman’s decision to drop atomic bombs on both Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It will determine whether or not his decision was justified. This investigation will scrutinize the reasons that made Harry Truman feel inclined to drop atomic bombs over Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Preventing further casualties along with the desire to end the war are two argumentative points that will be analyzed to determine if they were strong enough to justify the dropping of the atomic bombs. Excerpts from Truman’s memoirs and a variety of different titles were consulted in order to undertake this investigation. Section C will evaluate two sources for their origins purposes values and limitations. The first is a book titled The Invasion of Japan written by John Stakes in 1955. And the second is a book titled Prompt & Utter Destruction written by J. Samuel Walker.
Although WW II ended over 50 years ago there is still much discussion as to the events which ended the War in the Pacific. The primary event which historians attribute to this end are the use of atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Although the bombing of these cities did force the Japanese to surrender, many people today ask “Was the use of the atomic bomb necessary to end the war?” and more importantly “Why was the decision to use the bomb made?” Ronald Takaki examines these questions in his book Hiroshima.
Upon reading “Prompt and Utter Destruction: Truman and the Use of Atomic Bombs Against Japan” by J. Samuel Walker, a reader will have a clear understanding of both sides of the controversy surrounding Truman’s decision to drop atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. The controversy remains of whether or not atomic bombs should have been used during the war. After studying this text, it is clear that the first atomic bomb, which was dropped on the city of Hiroshima, was a necessary military tactic on ending the war. The second bomb, which was dropped on Nagasaki, however, was an unnecessary measure in ensuring a surrender from the Japanese, and was only used to seek revenge.
President Harry Truman’s use of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan during the Second World War is the most controversial decision in history. While it was an undoubtedly difficult decision, it was indeed necessary in order to end this six-year war that had ravaged the world. While many critics argue that the bomb was used primarily as an act of vengeance toward Japan, simplifying such a crucial moment in human history downplays the very real risk invading Japan posed to the United States. While avoiding strained relations with the other Allied countries, Truman had to assess the possible danger of the Soviet Union in a post-war world. Furthermore, the possibility of an arms race, the moral implications of using this weapon, and the number of American lives that would possibly be lost invading Japan were among the numerous pros and cons Truman had to consider when contemplating the use of this powerful weapon never before unleashed on humanity.
The bombings of 1945 by the United States of America on Japan were very controversial events. Many historians believe these acts were aggressive and unnecessary. In addition, analysts argue that the U.S. should have used alternative methods instead of the bomb, but most do not realize the repercussions of these different tactics. On the contrary, the bomb was needed to ease tension quickly and effectively. Ultimately, the bomb proved more effective than any other method, and also proved to be a technique that is sufficient for America’s needs. The effort made by the U.S. to bomb Japan after their disapproval of the Potsdam Declaration was needed to end conflicts in the Pacific because of Japanese resistance, to save American lives, and to portray the U.S. as a nation of power and dominance.
Due to the unique nature of the intelligence field, error of judgments can (and has) had catastrophic consequences. These errors are a result of complex decision making processes involved in the generation of intelligence products, affected by not only training and expertise, but by cognitive factors, particularly bias. The aim of this paper is to identify two different models of decision making (bounded rationality and intuitive decision making), the biases found in both models that affect the final intelligence product, and how these biases can be mitigated in order to avoid intelligence failures or minimise their impact.
A case referring to the beneficial use of the expert systems in the health sector was the attempt of the LDS Hospital in Salt Lake city,Utah to build “ the most complex artificial intelligence system ever created'; according to the words of DR David Classen.Its name was AIC or “Antibiotic Computer Consultant'; and it was part of HELP(Health Evaluation through Logical Processing), which was LDS’s hospital information system. The latter was existed, before the implementation of the Expert System.
According to Stephanie Hanes in the essay “Texting While Driving Is as Dangerous as Drunk Driving,” a driver on a phone and those talking on a phone are four times likely to crash. This statistic shows how dangerous using the phone or even texting is while driving. As technology has increased, so has the use of cellphone. Distracted driving has caused an increase in car fatalities and disasters. However, distracted driving can be prevented if drivers take precautions, but no matter what we do, trouble will always be spelling on the road.
Key Words; Artificial Intelligence, Multiple Intelligence, Fuzzy Logic, Fuzzy Logic Toolbox, Vocational Guidance, Decision Making
Many theorists have tried to define play as a concept, however, no two agree on a set definition. Their backgrounds and induvial lifestyles influence the way they see the importance of play. Reed and Brown also believe that there isn’t an agreed definition of play because is something that is felt rather than done (Reed & Brown, 2000 cited in Brock, Dodd’s, Jarvis & Olusoga, 2009). In spite of this, it is clear that most theorists uphold the ethos that play is imperative to a child’s learning and development. There is a wide range of different studies and theories which helps us develop our own perception of what play is. In my personal experience I have found play to be a way of expressive our emotions, exploring and learning new things, thus
Children have a natural inclination to play, alongside a natural instinct to learn and to be curious and inventive, which are characteristics of the human race in general. This quote taken from Janet Moyles is a good starting point for this essay. It is well known that children love to play. If a child were to be left to his/her own devices they would happily play and create new worlds anywhere they were left. It has been well documented and researched that children learn excellently through play. However they are not always given the opportunity to do so, instead being told to, ‘finish your work and then you can go play’. Obviously this is not always the case, but the fact that it is a common practice shows that we do not all fully appreciate the importance of play to children’s learning. This essay will attempt to show how children learn through play, making reference to current theory and practice. I will also give examples from my own first-hand experience of how children learn and develop as people through play.
The case based reasoning system proposed here mimics the human decision making process by learning from previous experience and using the knowledge to solve current problem. This system will utilize previous adverse episodes and their solutions to prevent reoccurrences, and also to detect the oc...
Finally almost a decade after the Dartmouth Conference, Centers for artificial intelligence research began to form at Carnegie Mellon and MIT. Further advancements were made in the field. The General Problem Solver (GPS) was developed based on the Wiener's feedback principle. The GPS was capable of solving a greater range of common sense problems.
Therefore, AIS has several roles. A main role is to integrate all information system for effective management within a company, connecting different departments with relevant information. Another role is to assist the organisation to make decisions by preparing different reports and evaluating information. It also provides a company with a control and safeguard internal information ((Kim and Solomon 2006).