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Counselors seek to conceptualize clients who come in with complex problems in order to help them improve their lives and facilitate improved problem solving skills. In order to do this the counselor must understand how the different aspects of an individual’s personality work together with their environment to make the individual who they are. Styles of attachment have proven to be central to the formation of a person’s personality. Ideas of attachment in infants and children were established in the 1960’s by Bowlby, and were later built upon by the ideas of researchers like Ainsworth and Thompson. Through this research bases of attachment, styles of attachment, and the outcomes of attachments in children have been documented and well understood. Somewhat less understood, however, are how the attachment one forms as a child then translates into their adult life and attachments. This work seeks to explore research on adult attachment, including the difference in childhood patterns of attachment and adult patterns, worldwide trends, stability throughout the life course, and adult issues associated with maladaptive patterns of attachment, while relating this research back to the counseling profession at large.
Childhood Patterns vs. Adult Patterns
Mary Ainsworth established four patterns of attachment through her qualitative research with children on the topic; the patterns are secure, anxious resistant, anxious-avoidant, and disorganized (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978). The style disorganized was added in through later research, and is not always utilized in research, as it is considered a combination of more than one style. The model of adult attachment styles takes information gleaned from the work of Bowlby and combine...
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...erry, E., & Chailman, R. (2013). Probing the relationship between selfobject needs and adult attachment orientations. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 30(2), 247-263.
Ponizovsky, A. M., Levov, K., Schultz, Y., & Radomislensky, I. (2011). Attachment insecurity and psychological resources associated with adjustment disorders. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 81(2), 265-276. van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Sagi-Schwartz, A. (2008). Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: Universal and contextual dimensions. In J. Cassidy, & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 880-905). New York: Guilford Press.
Wei, M., Russell, D. W., Mallinckrodt, B., & Zakalik, R. A. (2004). Cultural equivilence of adult attachment across four ethnic groups: Factor structure, structured means, and associations with negative mood. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 408-417.
Fox (1995) poses that it is possible that early childhood attachment does not influence adults’ minds relative to attachment. He also is hesitant to agree that parental sensitivity is a valuable aspect that is potentially “transmitted” to offspring.
Weger Jr., H. and Polcar, L. E., (2002). Attachment Style and Person-Centered Comforting. Western Journal of Communication, 66(1) (Winter 2002), 84-103.
Relationships are the building block for personality and are significant in children’s ability to grow into substantial individuals who can thrive in an often harsh world. Constructing lasting and fulfilling relationships is an integral part to development as the interpersonal bonds forged are not only highly sought after but also set the ground work for all upcoming expressive interactions. Relationships and attachment go hand in hand as attachment is the strong and lasting linkage established between a child and his or her caregiver. Moreover, attachment significantly influences a large capacity of ones make up as it these first relationships that teaches morals, builds self-esteem, and develops a support system. The pioneers of Attachment Theory realized early on that human beings are not solely influenced by drives but that the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers greatly impact their ability to forge lasting relationships later in life. John Bowlby was first to introduce this theory to the masses in the 1950’s, and later Mary Ainsworth conducted further research to expand on Bowlby’s theory which proclaims that attachment is a “lasting psychological connectedness between human beings” (Bowlby, 1969, p. 194). The attachment bond theory by both Bowlby and Ainsworth focuses on the significance of the relationship between babies and their caretakers which research has suggested is accountable for influencing impending interactions, firming or injuring our capabilities to concentrate, being aware of our emotional states, self-soothing capabilities, and the capacity to be resilient in the face of hardship. Additionally, this research has provided a framework for assisting in describing these att...
Strodl, E., & Noller, P. (2003). The relationship of adult attachment dimensions to depression and agoraphobia. Personal Relationships, 10(2), 171-186. doi:10.1111/1475-6811.00044
For example, Magai & Passman (1997) discovered a strong relationship between secure attachments and emotional well-being of middle aged adults, which extends to individuals later in life. Understanding the role of attachment and its psychosocial impact during later life is an important area that needs further research. In regards to TMT, close relationships offer security, protection, and give meaning to life (Mikulincer, Florian, & Hirschberger, 2003).
Admittedly, many psychologists define attachment as an enduring affectionate bond that one person forms between himself and another person throughout life. Since Mary Ainsworth provided the most famous research: strange situation, offering explanations how each individual differences in attachment. However, in this Adult Attachment Style questionnaire that I took, I found many factors relevant to attachment as it was defined in the textbook. For example, in the textbook, it defines attachment based on Ainsworth research, the strange situation by observing attachment forms between mother and infants. Which they are described in four attachment styles: securely attached, insecure avoidant, insecure resistant, and insecure disorganized. The questions on the questionnaire were based on those areas to determine my style of attachment.
Acknowledging, the importance of attachment has been in helpful development of couples therapy, in particular to Emotionally Focused Couples Therapy (EFT), “where it helps explain how even healthy adults need to depend on each other,” (Nichols, 2013, p. 62). EFT is an empirically validated experiential therapy model that works with emotion to create change. EFT therapists use “attachment theory to deconstruct the familiar dynamic in which one partner criticizes and complains while the other gets defensive and withdraws,” (Nichols, 2013, p.63). Research has demonstrated the importance of attachment in individuals. It is not solely a childhood trait attachment is a trait that individuals carry for the rest of their lives. Nonetheless, it is important to work on the attachments with families and couples in order to alleviate some of the negative interactions that arise from feeling a fear of losing the attachment with
There is much debate surrounding the subject of infant attachment styles and the resounding effect they have on adult relationships. Attachment theory highlights the influence of early experience on shaping children’s conceptualization of responsiveness and trustworthiness of a significant other (Frayley, Roisman Booth-LaForce, Owen & Holland, 2013). The theory also suggests that an individual that is cared for consistently and responsively will assume that others will be supportive and available when necessary (Ainsworth Blehar, Waters & Wall, 1978). This assumption is influential of the way individuals control attachment behaviour and can consequently effect social development and interpersonal relations (Frayley et al., 2013). A prevalent
Attachments are formed with parents; this contributes to give a sense of who we are and who we will become in later life. However where these attachments are broken the child needs to have a secure attachment established with an alternative adult care giver,...
Attachment is described as the close emotional bond between two people and Attachment Theory (AT) generally concentrates on the early bonds in a person’s development as well as the effects that these bonds have on later socio-emotional development. While emphasis on attachment as an antecedent for future behavior and personality has decreased somewhat in recent years, it is interesting to note that the DSM IV-TR includes a “reactive attachment disorder” which it states is caused when extreme circumstances prevent proper attachment development.
The first topic that came up in the interview relates to idea of attachment theory. Attachment theory explains the human’s way of relating to a caregiver and receives an attachment figures relating to the parent, and children. In addition, the concept explains the confidence and ability for a child to free explore their environment with a place to seek support, protection, and comfort in times of distress (Levy, Ellison, Scott, and Bernecker, 2010, p. 193). Within attachment theory explains different types of attachment styles that children experience during early childhood. These attachment styles affect the relationships they continue to build in adulthood. The best attachment style happens when the parent is attuned to the child during his or her early childhood called secure attachment (Reyes, 2010, p. 174). In order for complete secure attachment, the child needs to feel safe, seen, and soothed. Any relationship that deviates from this model represents the anxious or insecure attachment. This means that parents or caregivers are inconsistently responsive to the children. Children who have these parents are usually confused and insecure. Some children experience a dismissive attachment where they
There is evidence from other theorists who support Bowlby’s theory of attachment such as Harlow whose approach is based upon a caregiver’s sensitivity and attachment. Ainsworth is another theorist whose research supports Bowlby’s theory of attachment. In her strange situation study, she tested for the attachment types and what effects they had on a child’s behaviour. “Ainsworth and Witting (1969) devised the strange situation to be able to test the nature of attachment systematically” Cardwell, M. et.al (2000). They found three attachment types, secure attachment, insecure-avoidant and insecure –resistant. They found that the different attachments had different effects on a child’s behaviour. Bowlby’s theory talks about having a secure base whi...
Psychologist, Mary Ainsworth expanded upon Bowlby's original work. She conducted a study labelled the ‘Strange Situation’. In the study, based upon the children’s reactions, Ainsworth described three major styles of attachment: secure attachment, ambivalent-insecure attachment, and avoidant-insecure attachment. Work by Stroufe and Waters in 1977, further supported Ainsworth's attachment styles and have indicated that attachment styles also have an impact on behaviours later in life (Birns, 1999, p. 13). Researchers have found strengths in attachment patterns established early in life can lead to a number of outcomes. For example, children who are securely attached as infants tend to develop stronger self-esteem and better self-reliance as they grow older. These children also tend to be more independent, perform better in school, have successful social relationships, and experience less depression and anxiety (Birns, 1999, p. 13).
Attachment schemes are activated when a person is under stress (Bowlby, 1973), and the initiation of an insecure attachment style has been suggested to either inhibit an individual from seeking appropriate help (Florian, Mikulincer, & Bucholtz, 1995; Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Kobak & Sceery, 1988) or interfering with their ability to use the help when it is present (Coble, Gantt, & Mallinckrodt, 1996). Individuals with attachment issues are predisposed to view others as unreliable or indifferent which in turn affect their use of social support (Wallace & Vaux, 1993). Sarason, Pierce, and Sarason, (1990), state that an example of this is can be seen between a child and their relationship with early caregivers, which affect the expectations individuals have regarding the type of support they would receive if they sought help in their time of need. These expectations can then lead individuals who have had bad experiences to avoid disclosing problems to others. Insecure attachments have been shown to lead to less support-seeking behavior (DeFronzo, Panzarella, & Butler, 2001; Florian et al., 1995; Hazan & Shaver, 1987; Kobak & Sceery, 1988), mostly during times of stress (Mikulincer, Florian, & Weller, 1993) or when anxiety levels are high (Simpson, Rholes, & Nelligan,
Brenning, K.M. & Braet, C. (2013). The emotion regulation model of attachment: An emotion-specific approach. Personal Relationships, 20(1), 107-123. Doi: 10.1111/j.1475-6811.2012.01399.x