Living organisms are composed of various cells, which are specialised to carry out different functions. Nerve cells and liver cells are two important groups of cells as they are essential building blocks of the nervous and digestive system. Both the liver cells and the nerve cells initially start off as totipotent cells (stem cells) however due to gene expression they specialise to carry out their different functions. The nerve cell is adapted to cell impulses across the body liver cell is adapted for the regulation of glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells, plasma protein synthesis, hormone production, and detoxification. Liver cells do not have the same biochemical functions as nerve cells, although they have the same set of gene …show more content…
Organelles such as mitochondria must be present to provide energy through aerobic respiration, in order for ions to move against concentration gradient.
The structure of both cells are hugely different as they both have to carry out different functions. Nerve cells are composed of axons, dendrites, soma, cell body and Schwann cells. The nerve cell must carry impulses across the body, Schwann cells (a lipid based structure which stops conduction) provides electrical insulation so depolarisation will happen at node of Ranvier to node of Ranvier. Liver cells do not have dendrites or an axon as they don’t need it for its
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Every cell in the human body contains nucleus with the same set of genes, ribosomes, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus are enclosed in a cell membrane. Despite that fact, liver cells do not have a lot in common with nerve cells in appearance and function. This could be explained by cell differentiation. Differentiation is a process of cell specialisation that initiates with the instalment of a gene program, precise determination is specific for the individual cell. The development of cell differentiation includes the expression of specific genes, which control the biochemical functions linked with the cell type and that distinguishes the specialised cells (MacCorkle and Tan,2005). Gene expression is the realisation of hereditary information via transcription and translation. It is controlled by different complicated mechanisms. The changes in the process of development from childhood to adulthood are result of the programmed switching off and on of different genes. Even in adulthood some cells undergo differentiation, e.g. erythrocytes (red blood cells). Although the somatic cells of an organism have the same set of genes, in cells with different morphology and function (liver, nerve cells) is expressed small and different part of the common
The cells unique nature has scientists intrigued to do research with the focus of finding a way that these cells can be used to replace patients’ injured or diseased tissues. Advancement is made to all the three types of stem cells namely embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells in addition to induced pluripotent cells. Embryonic cells are the building blocks of an embryo that is developing, and can develop into almost all body cell types. Somatic cells are found in the body tissues. They renew and regenerate in healthy bodies. The third type which is induced pluripotent is genetically modified embryo cells from skin cells.2 Research on these cells are geared towards saving humanity; a noble course.
The nerve itself is composed of a cell body (called a soma), an axon, and dendrites. Nerves send signals using an electrical charge that is passed from the dendrites,to the axon, then to the next cell. This electrical signal, known as a nerve impulse, is created by the movement of ions. Sodium (Na+) ions migrate into the nerve cell because of stimulation from the central nervous system. This creates a net localized positive charge inside the cell, called an action potential. However, the positive charge degrades as it moves through the cell because the ions will diffuse (and then so will the local charge). The nerve cell has devised a mechanism to keep the magnitude of the charge it receives and then later transmits at a constant value.
These receptors enable them to eavesdrop on the neurons and respond in ways that help strengthen their messages. For example, neurons are removed from rodents of where they were found to form very few synapses and to produce very little synaptic activity until they were surrounded by glial cells known as astrocytes. Once the astrocytes were introduced, the number of synapses jumped, and synaptic activity increased by 10 times. Studies have shown that without glial cells, neurons and their synapses fail to function
19. The nucleus of the neuron and the biochemical structures needed for cell survival are contained in
19. D. Woodbury et al., "Adult Rat and Human Bone Marrow Stromal Cells Differentiate Into Neurons," 61 J. of Neuroscience Research 364-70 (2000) at 364 (emphasis added).
For decades, biologists have been using stem cells to figure out possible cures for different diseases and even prevent them. Stem cells are cells that can become useable in certain tissues in the body (according to an infant), or tissue cells that are already found in blood, bones, the brain, and skin (in adults or children). Stem cells are being used for patients with lymphoma (begins in the immune system), leukemia (cancer of white blood cells), and other types of blood disorders.
The brain, like the rest of the nervous system, is composed by and large of neuralgia (glial cells), nerve cells (neurons), that are immersed in a constant flow of cerebrospinal fluid. The glial cells far outnumber the neurons, but have no axons or synapses, and therefore do not play a part in the electrical activity of the brain. They are simpler looking, much smaller, and have lower metabolic rates than neurons.
The nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system and the ganglia of the peripheral nervous system. The functional unit of the nervous system is a neuron. It is estimated 100 billion neurons reside in the brain with some neurons making anywhere between 10,000 to 100,000 connections with other cells! A distinctive class of neurons, mirror neurons discharge both when the individual executes a motor action and when he/she observes another individual performing that same or similar action. These mirror neurons were discovered by neurophysiologists in the 1990s at the University of Parma, Italy. Using macaque monkeys, these researchers found that neurons of the rostral part of the inferior premotor cortex were activated both when the monkey made goal-directed hand movements (grasping, holding, & tearing) and when the monkey observed specific hand movements done by the experimenters (Pellegrino, et al., 1992). In a monkey’s inferior frontal and inferior parietal cortex, it is estimated that about 10% of neurons have “mirror” properties.
The nervous system is composed of two tissue cells: neurons, which allow the functioning of reaction to physical and chemical changes that may occur through the lifespan, and the neuroglia cells, that give support and protection to neurons (Herlihy & Macbius, 2000). In order to better understand how the nervous system works, it is essential to know how neurons work, since they are the most important tools for transmitting information.
The nerves are made of neurons which are the cells that receive, process and transmit messages from one neuron to another. The nervous system is separated into two main parts; the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is made up of the brain and the spinal cord. The second part of the nervous system is the peripheral nervous system which allows the central nervous system to communicate with the muscles, joints, glands and organs.
The cytoskeleton is a highly dynamic intracellular platform constituted by a three-dimensional network of proteins responsible for key cellular roles as structure and shape, cell growth and development, and offering to the cell with "motility" that being the ability of the entire cell to move and for material to be moved within the cell in a regulated fashion (vesicle trafficking)’, (intechopen 2017). The cytoskeleton is made of microtubules, filaments, and fibres - they give the cytoplasm physical support. Michael Kent, (2000) describes the cytoskeleton as the ‘internal framework’, this is because it shapes the cell and provides support to cellular extensions – such as microvilli. In some cells it is used in intracellular transport. Since the shape of the cell is constantly changing, the microtubules will also change, they will readjust and reassemble to fit the needs of the cell.
Dendrites are located on either one or both ends of a cell.The peripheral nervous system then takes the sensory information from the outside and sends the messages by virtue of neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that relay signals through the neural pathways of the spinal cord. The neurotransmitter chemicals are held by tiny membranous sacs located in the synaptic terminals. Synaptic terminals are located at the ends of nerve cells. The release of neurotransmitters from their sacs is stimulated once the electrical nerve impulse has finished travelling along a neuron and reaches the synaptic terminal. Afterward, neurotransmitters travel across synapses thus stimulating the production of an electrical charge that carries the nerve impulse onward. Synapses are junctions between neighboring neurons. This procedure is reiterated until either muscle movement occurs or the brain picks up on a sensory reaction. During this process, messages are being transmitted from one part of the body onto the next. The peripheral and central nervous system are two crucial subdivisions of the nervous system. The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous
Distinct characteristics are not only an end result of the DNA sequence but also of the cell’s internal system of expression orchestrated by different proteins and RNAs present at a given time. DNA encodes for many possible characteristics, but different types of RNA aided by specialized proteins sometimes with external signals express the needed genes. Control of gene expression is of vital importance for an eukaryote’s survival such as the ability of switching genes on/off in accordance with the changes in the environment (Campbell and Reece, 2008). Of a cell’s entire genome, only 15% will be expressed, and in multicellular organisms the genes active will vary according to their specialization. (Fletcher, Ivor & Winter, 2007).
Within the human anatomy, an intricate and complex network of specialised nerve fibres and neurons works in collaboration with the central nervous system and peripheral system, designed to carry out the various actions humans perform every day. The nervous system is also known as the master control unit of the human body, as it operates other major functions such as the circulatory and respiratory systems (Jakab, 2006). It is composed of the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The neurons established within the various sections of the nervous system, is structured with three main parts: a dendrite which is a cluster of branches that operates by receiving information from the receptor and neurons and transferring nerve impulses to the cell body; furthermore, a cell body is composed of a nucleus, that works to provide energy and nutrients for the neuron; lastly is an axon, electrically conducted by the myelin sheath, the axon is a pathway nerve impulses pass through from the cell body. In addition, this is the process in which nerve impulses travel by to be able to access the rest of the system (Core Science, 2010). The correct function of the nervous system is vital to the daily survival of an individual, as it obtains a significant role in the control and co-ordination of the human body. Furthermore, if a situation occurs where the nervous system dysfunctions or develops a disease (such as multiple sclerosis), it would in that case threaten the current status of one’s health and cause havoc in the system.
Energy production- The most important function of mitochondria is energy production in the form of ATP. The raw materials are food materials and tissues which are broken down in catabolism. These molecules transferred to mitochondria for further processes. In inner membrane they have electrical charges then they help in producton of ATP (Phosphorylaton) by combine with oxygen (Oxidaton) through five electron transport chain complexes. So this overall