Over 40 years ago, Henry Jerison identified a key difference between primates and all other vertebrates: primates have unusually large brains for their body size (Dunbar 2009). Initially, it was assumed that the evolution of large brains in primates was guided by ecological problems, such as foraging and other acts of survival. Today, the widely accepted theory is that there is a link between social complexity and brain expansion, and large brains in primates evolved as a means to manage their complex social lives - this explanation is known as the “social brain hypothesis.” The purpose of this paper is to not only examine the mechanisms underlying the social brain, but to also explore how it relates to the development of psychiatric and neurological …show more content…
According to Brothers, “the social brain” can be described as “the higher cognitive and affective systems in the brain that evolved as a result of increasingly complex social selective pressures,” and it is these systems that underlie our ability to function as highly social animals and provide the substrate for intact social cognition, social behavior and affective responsiveness (Brothers 1990, Burns 2006). In other words, the evolution of a larger brain in primates has led to a number of relative behavioral specializations, the most important for our case being social cognition; it is these specializations that allow us to meaningfully evaluate a complex situation and interact with other …show more content…
Although all four structures work in concert with one another, each is observed to have a distinct function. Specifically, the amygdala is thought to be responsible for recognizing other’s emotional states; the STC analyzes body movements in order to predict the actions, or intentions, of others; the OFC is involved in social reinforcement; and the FFG plays a role in face detection (Pelphrey, Shultz, Hudac & Vander 2011). Support for this model can be found in numerous studies. For example, in an fMRI study of facial identity and expression, it was found that the amygdala was activated to various degrees when subjects were shown different emotional expressions (Gläscher, Gläscher, Weiller & Büchel 2004). In another fMRI study, the STS was activated when subjects observed humans moving, but not while inanimate objects moved (Pelphrey, Shultz, Hudac & Vander 2011). Furthermore, evidence for the OFC as an important structure for reward was seen when monkeys worked for electrical stimulation of this region when they were hungry, but not if they were satiated (Rolls 2000). Finally, the FFG, which contains a region called the fusiform face area (FFA), was shown to be
This article, titled Common Ground, written by Barbara Smuts, points out the main differences between humans and apes, such as our upright stance, large brains, and capacity for spoken language and abstract reasoning. However, the main point of this article is to emphasize the many similarities that apes share with us. Smuts goes into great detail about how human social and emotional tendencies are very reflective in the family of apes.
...., Verbeke, W., Dietvorst, R., van den Berg, W., Bagozzi, R., & De Zeeuw, C. (2012). fMRI activities in the emotional cerebellum: a preference for negative stimuli and goal-directed behavior. Cerebellum (London, England), 11(1), 233-245
Previously, neuro-imaging studies have only observed the amygdala’s response to emotional face stimuli of the same cultural environment. This study went further and tested the amygdala’s response to participants of different cultures. In the study there were 22 adult participants: 12 native Japanese living in Japan (6 men and 6 women) and 10 Caucasians living in the United States (5 men and 5 women). The stimuli used to arouse the amygdala’s reactivity were 80 digitized grayscale pictures of faces that had different expressions. The facial expressions were of the four: neutral, happy, angry, and fearful. The photos were of 20 Japanese and 20 Caucasian men and women taken from the two groups. Participants were tested based on their own self-identified culture. The experimenters who conducted the studies used the participant’s native language. The independent variable in the study was the faces from the different cultures and the dependent variable was the amygdala’...
The amygdala is located in the brain’s temporal lobe and enables us to feel certain emotions. It is our emotions that make us human and it helps in connecting us with one another. One of the most important emotions that the amygdala is responsible for is our fear response. Flight-or-fight is crucial for the survival of any living being, i.e. when an animal feels cornered and threatened, their body will respond by preparing them to flee, if able, or attack.
B.M.de Waal, Tree of Origin: What Primate Behavior Can Tell Us about Human Social Evolution. Havard University Press: Massachusets, 2001.
3). By drawing on more advanced biological knowledge of the brain’s activities in different areas, Storbeck and Clore (2007) concluded that the visual cortex could actually identify subliminal stimuli (which is regarded as a kind of cognitive activities) without its being consciously aware of by the subject. The only difference between a conscious and unconscious cognitive processing, they argued, was the strength of firing of the neurons which determined whether such information entered the subject’s consciousness, and leading to a more confident identification of the stimuli. Hence an unconscious processing doesn’t rule out cognitive activities and implies a preferential processing of affective components. Furthermore, they argued that amygdala was not the essential part in the mere exposure effect by citing the case of a patient GY whose amygdala has been severed from his visual cortex (Greve & Bauer, 1990) yet who was still shown to have the mere exposure effect. Therefore, they concluded that emotion and cognition should be treated as interdependent faculties functioning alongside with each other. This advocate was supported by a later meta-analytical review of the brain basis of emotion (Lindquist, Wager, Kober, Bliss-Moreau, & Barrett,
Gamer, M., Schmitz, A. K., Tittgemeyer, M., & Schilbach, L. (2013). The human amygdala drives reflexive orienting towards facial features. Current Biology, 23(20), R917-R918. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.09.008
The frontal lobe is located in the most anterior part of the brain hemispheres. It is considered responsible for much of the behavior that makes possible stable and adequate social relations. Self-control, planning, judgment, the balance of individual versus social needs, and many other essential functions underlying effective social intercourse are mediated by the frontal structures of the brain. (3) Antonio and Anna Damasio, two noted Portuguese neurologists and researchers working in the University of Iowa, have been investigating in the last decade the neurological basis of psychopathy.
Aim of this paper is to examine and present the application of social cognition models in the prediction and alternation of health behavior. Social cognition models are used in health practices in order to prevent illness or even improve the health state of the individuals in interest, and protect their possibly current healthy state. This essay is an evaluation of the social cognition models when used to health behaviors. Unfortunately it is impossible to discuss extensively all the models and for this reason we will analyze three of the most representative cognitive models to present an integrated idea of their application.
Schulte-Rüther, M., Markowitsch, H. J., Shah, N. J., Fink, G. R., & Piefke, M. (2008). Gender differences in brain networks supporting empathy. Neuroimage, 42(1), 393-403.
Many scientists have argued vehemently against mirror neurons both in their existence and their role in humans and monkeys. For example, an Oxford researcher argues that the mirror neuron system is not an evolutionary adaptation for action-understanding, but a byproduct of social interaction (Heyes, 2009). A neurophilosopher, Patricia Churchland, expresses concern over the role of the function of mirror neurons. She explains that intentions are more than individual neuron recordings. Intentions, she argues, are at a much more complex level of neural activity (Churchland, 2011). Taking into account the many doubts associated with the mirror neuron system, the importance of mirror neurons should not be overestimated and caution should be used. At the same, the mirror neuron research related to empathy, understanding intentions, and autism should not be overlooked.
Emotion is the “feeling” aspect of consciousness that includes physical, behavioral, and subjective (cognitive) elements. Emotion also contains three elements which are physical arousal, a certain behavior that can reveal outer feelings and inner feelings. One key part in the brain, the amygdala which is located within the limbic system on each side of the brain, plays a key role in emotional processing which causes emotions such as fear and pleasure to be involved with the human facial expressions.The common-sense theory of emotion states that an emotion is experienced first, leading to a physical reaction and then to a behavioral reaction.The James-Lange theory states that a stimulus creates a physiological response that then leads to the labeling of the emotion. The Cannon-Bard theory states that the physiological reaction and the emotion both use the thalamus to send sensory information to both the cortex of the brain and the organs of the sympathetic nervous system. The facial feedback hypothesis states that facial expressions provide feedback to the brain about the emotion being expressed on the face, increasing all the emotions. In Schachter and Singer’s cognitive arousal theory, also known as the two-factor theory, states both the physiological arousal and the actual arousal must occur before the emotion itself is experienced, based on cues from the environment. Lastly, in the cognitive-mediational theory
While the concept of the “triune brain” is, as a whole, wrong, MacLean in 1970 did propose some interesting ideas about the evolution of the brain. He proposed that there are three main layers of evolutionary progress in the human brain. It starts in the middle with the most basic, the reptilian brain. The reptilian brain is the brainstem itself, and is responsible for the most basic of survival behaviors. The next layer out is what he called the paleomammilian brain, which is where MacLean says we find the limbic system. This part of the brain deals with social and emotions, and MacLean argues that most mammals have this. The third and most complex layer is the neomammilian or neocortex that deals with the highest of cognitive functions. LeDoux argues that while MacLean was fundamentally wrong about the physical layers of the brain, he was not far from the truth about the evolutionary brain. Emotions at the core are in part for survival, and so therefore the more complex the emotion, the more complex the functions needed.
Everyday people use social cognition as a tool to help them thrive in social world. There are many important aspects of social cognition that are helpful to us in making decisions and help us to interpret the world around us. An important aspect that is linked to social cognition is that of thought suppression. Thought suppression is when a person tries to force particular thoughts, memories or feelings out of their minds that may be unpleasant or may cause a great deal of stress for the individual. Many people are unaware how often we use thought suppression in our daily lives, but the truth is we use it in almost every aspect of our day.
Cite: Dr. Eric Kendel in States of Mind, Columbia professor and director of Columbia's Center for Neurobiology and Behavior