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peer pressure and its effects on students
peer pressure and its effects on students
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Racial and Cultural Test Bias, Stereotype Threat and Their Implications
A substantial amount of educational and psychological research has consistently demonstrated that African American students underperform academically relative to White students. For example, they tend to receive lower grades in school (e.g., Demo & Parker, 1987; Simmons, Brown, Bush, & Blyth, 1978), score lower on standardized tests of intellectual ability (e.g., Bachman, 1970; Herring, 1989; Reyes & Stanic, 1988; Simmons et al., 1978), drop out at higher rates (e.g., American Council on Education, 1990; Steele, 1992), and graduate from college with substantially lower grades than White students (e.g., Nettles, 1988). Such performance gaps can be attributed to any number of factors, such as socioeconomic status, academic preparation, and educational opportunities; however, Steele (1997) pointed out that even when background factors are held constant, subsequent achievement remains lower for minority students. Moreover, much research in this area has focused on how African American students’ lack of motivation and negative attitudes contribute to their inferior academic performance (Ogbu, 1990); yet many Black students often report high educational aspirations (Fordham, 1996; Fine, 1991; Ogbu, 1987, 1990; Hauser & Anderson, 1991), even higher than White students of comparable class background (MacLeod, 1995). What remains certain is the urgent need to explain what accounts for the persistent academic underachievement of Black students.
One widely held explanation for the achievement gap in test performance between Black and White students is that the tests are either culturally or racially biased. Jencks (1998) points out three types of biases...
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...lantic Monthly, 68-78.
Steele, C. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 6, 613-629.
Steele, C., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 5, 797-811.
Steele, C., Spencer, S. J., & Aronson, J. (2002). Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. (In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 34, pp. 379-440. New York, NY: Academic Press.
Vars, F. E., & Bowen, W. G. (1998). Scholastic aptitude test scores, race, and academic performance in selective colleges and universities. (In Jencks, C. & Phillips, M. (Eds.), The Black-White Test Score Gap (pp. 55-85). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.)
Steele, C. M. (1997). A Threat In The Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity And
African- American males have been underrepresented among college students and degree earners for years, however the reason for this is often misconstrued. The percentages of white high school graduates “In 1998-2000 had jumped to 46. However, only 40 percent of African-Americans and 34 percent of Hispanics in the same age group were attending college” (McGlynn, Angela Proviteira). The question then to pose, is why minority students are not succeeding in college compared to Caucasian students, “Only 47% of Black male students graduated on time
Countertransference first introduced by Freud, “as a therapist’s unconscious reaction to a patient’s transference” (Dass-Brailsford, pg. 293, 2007). This concept has since become known as a normal emotional reaction to a client. This reaction that comes from the therapist is a resolved or unresolved conflict within the therapist (Dass-Brailsford, 2007). This has nothing to do with the client but something the client said or did triggered the therapist. If this goes unnoticed, it can be detrimental to the client’s recovery. The therapist may begin to overidentify with the client and lose their sense of hope (Dass-Brailsford, 2007).
As this book points out, and what I found interesting, the therapeutic relationship between therapist and client, can be even more important than how the therapy sessions are conducted. A therapists needs to be congruent. This is important because a client needs a sense of stability. To know what is expected from him or her while being in this transitional period of change. In some cases this congruency may be the only stability in his life, and without it, there is no way of him trusting in his t...
According to statistics published by Finley (2002), of the results from the 2001 SAT's, the average verbal score for African Americans and Hispanics was 433, while for whites it was 529, and the average math score for African Americans and Hispanics was 426, while for whites it was 531. This is a big difference by about 200 points. The comparison between African American and Hispanic scores with white scores can make a big difference in the student body of colleges who place a big emphasis on SAT scores. In 1997, the dean of Berkeley said, "We have evidence that the SAT lost us two thousand Latino students this year alone." (Zwick, 1999). This shows that even in 1997, just three years after the SAT was revised, educators were still seeing problems with it.
The therapist would then interpret this information, which consists of teaching, pointing out and explaining what the therapist is noticing through this free association (Corey, 2013). One of the key factors in a therapeutic process is the client-therapist relationship. Without this relationship, transference cannot be assessed.
Many arguments have been made that Dante’s Inferno glimmers through here and there in Milton’s Paradise Lost. While at first glance the two poems seem quite drastically different in their portrayal of Hell, but scholars have made arguments that influence from Dante shines through Milton’s work as well as arguments refuting these claims. All of these arguments have their own merit and while there are instances where a Dantean influence can be seen throughout Paradise Lost, Milton’s progression of evil and Satan are quite different from Dante. Dante’s influence on Milton is noted by many scholars and is very apparent in several instances throughout Paradise Lost, however, Milton shows a progression of evil through his own vision of Satan and creates a Hell that is less meticulously constructed than Dante’s and more open to interpretation.
The message that many African American males receive throughout their lives is that they are unintelligible, uneducable, and dangerous (hooks 2004; Jackson and Moore 2008). With this message being delivered to them every day it is not hard to understand the disparity of those getting higher education and those who do not compared to their white counterparts. These messages can play a role in how their self-image is formed and defined. Other factors include poverty and incarceration. These are not the only factors that affect African American males but these are some of the common factors that affect the educational attainment of African American males. This is should be a concern because there may be something that can be done to prevent the disparity of educational attainment among African American males and white males.
In a growing world, relying on education and intelligence, judgments in a social environment are still continuously based off of appearance. A study of the importance of outer looks was produced through a TV game show. Contestants fought to answer questions correctly to improve their personal score. At the end of the game, the player with the highest score was asked to eliminate a team member. Although many times an unattractive player would have higher scores and could be more beneficial than another teammate, only 27% of unattractive members were chosen to advance to the next round (Belot, Bhaskar, and van de Ven 852-853). When society overlooks qualities and characteristics of high value for looks, discrimination conquers.
To better understand countertransference, it is crucial to address transference first. The term transference was coined by Sigmund Freud to denominate the way clients “transfer” feeling from important persons in their early lives, onto the therapist. Greenson (1965) defined transference as “the experiencing of feelings, drives, attitudes, fantasies, and defenses toward a person in the present, which are inappropriate to the person and are a repetition, a displacement of reactions originating in regard to significant persons of early childhood” (p. 156). Assumptions from the clients’ are based on the client’s experiences with, assumptions regarding and other important relationships, such as childhood relations with parents.
Therefore, the transference may be utilized to adjust Janice’s behaviors and possibly resolve the concerns she is experiencing with her step-mother. As the therapist, the issue is not centered around me. It is the evidence of the repeated pattern in Janice’s relationship with her step-mother that she is describing (King & O’Brien, 2011).
Numerous research and investigations were conducted on the topic of stereotype threat. In the articles connected to this paper, experiments were performed to see how stereotype threat affected test results. During tests some participants were exposed to variables that activated a negative stereotype while others were not. Those exposed to the negative stereotype had lower results. Therefore stereotype threat resulted in weaker performance. It is proven the threat exists but so...
The great debate whether Satan is the hero of Milton’s Epic Poem, Paradise Lost, has been speculated for hundreds of years. Milton, a writer devoted to theology and the appraisal of God, may not have intended for his portrayal of Satan to be marked as heroic. Yet, this argument is valid and shares just how remarkable the study of literature can be. Milton wrote his tale of the fall of man in the 1674. His masterpiece is an example of how ideas of a society change with time. This is because it wasn’t until the 1800’s during the Romantic era, that people no longer saw the hero of literary works as perfect in every way. It started to become more popular to develop the flawed character similar to the ones written in the classics. A literary criterion that is based on a protagonist, who undergoes conflict on the outside and from within and is prevented by a specific flaw to accomplish their main goal, creates an epic Hero. In Paradise Lost, God does not face conflict because he is perfect and all-knowing, and Adam’s conflict is not presented from the very start, Satan’s is. Because Satan is the main character of the work and possesses qualities that would deem him heroic, such as his determination against tough odds, his ability to lead, and his human-like nature to error, he can be seen has the Hero of the famous poem.
The enactment of standardizes testing given to students to measure their academic abilities and supposedly will close achievement gap only prove that the battle to the end achievement gap between racial groups is a failure. Buchanon elucidate statistics of the results from the national test under the “No Child Left Behind” program to infer that there is a huge gap between white students and black students (par. 19). On the same note, New Yorks state test scores reveals a large imbalance in academics between different racial groups (par. 16)
The idea behind Orientalism has been around much longer. A major example used by Said was British imperialism in Egypt. The British took control of Egypt’s government in 1882. Western culture's perception of the middle east has been tainted for hundreds of years starting with ignorant men who passed down there incorrect beliefs to those who would accept them purely as fact. These beliefs passed down by europeans are still prevalent in western culture today and Reel Bad Arabs does an excellent job of shedding light on how we still spread these beliefs in modern times. To understand how these films started to be produced, one must first understand that Orientalism set the stage for all of these films to be created. Orientalism is the reason America has a biased opinion towards those from the middle east. Hollywood has produced many movies where “Arab Land” is involved. Arab Land is the fictional embodiment of all the basic stereotypes associated with the middle east. “We see people riding around on magic carpets, turban charmers programming snakes in and out of baskets. Yesteryear’s Arab Land is today’s Arab Land” (Shaheen 3). Arab characters in these movies are portrayed as savage and ruthless killers who have no humanity. This belief stems back to Arthur James Balfour, a British leader in Egypt at the time of Imperialism, who was quoted as saying. All of the misconceptions that Hollywood spreads in its movies are a direct