Basque Nationalism
For over decades, the Basque country has been in political turmoil with its bordering countries, which are both France and Spain. This conflict that has been troubling the region, is based on the Basque nationalist movement that has been campaigning for their independence. This transited territory has a strategic geographical location that links it to the northwest and center of Spain but also to other European countries. The Basque region covers over 20,000 square kilometers of both the French and Spanish territory. This thus is a key factor of why the Spaniards and other powerful countries are interested in this area. Nationalism has been a prominent historical movement in the region that has brought conflict but also unity to the Basque Country.
Basque nationalism, which is “a political movement advocating for the full independence of the Basque Country”, has been mostly supported in the Spanish territory rather than the French (Barnes, “Basque and Catalan Nationalism: An Evolution”). Throughout the country, two main groups have been publicly promoting nationalist ideas regarding their country. As Arnaldo Otegi stated, “the separatist group ETA has been campaigning for 34 years, claiming for their independence from Spain”. Unfortunately, they haven’t always been using peaceful ways to express their ideas and feelings on this delicate issue. They are responsible for the killings of hundreds of demonstrators.
“Foreign authorities such as the French, British, and Americans have named them terrorists” for all these crimes they’re accountable for (“World History: The Modern Era” 754). Another group that represent this ideology would be the Basque Nationalist Party, which was “established in 1895 in Bilbao by a journalist named Sabino de Arana y Goiri to contest local elections” (Britannica, “Basque Nationalist Party”). The party soon expanded to the entire country and gained influence. It “adopted a moderate Christian Democratic position, supporting a mixed economy and opposing free capitalism” (Britannica “Basque Nationalist Party”). After that the party gained influence, it won one-third of the electoral votes and appointed several members to the Spanish legislature in Madrid. After that the legislation granted the Basque Country autonomy in October 1936, the Basque Nationalist group formed an independent government. This then led them to “establish an alliance with Republican forces against General Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War” (Britannica, “Spanish Civil War”). Franco’s nationalist forces won this war and this was the beginning of his dictatorship that lasted for almost four decades.
On the 18 July 1936, leading Generals of the Spanish Army led a revolt against the democratically elected Popular Front government of Spain. Within days the country was plunged into civil war with the Republicans fighting the insurgent Nationalists for control of the country. The various democracies of the world turned their backs on Spain's plight and even hindered the Republicans by supporting non-intervention in the conflict. However, many people came to help the Republic. Las Brigades Internacionales, the International Brigades, would eventually include almost 40,000 men and women from 53 different countries, from all around the world.
As a general rule, Spanish people feel rigidly bound by their sense of honor. This is one major conflict inherent between the Spanish people and entering the war. First Spain had no appreciable quarrel with any country involved in the war, save the Russians. The Russians had given aide the defeated Republicans during the Spanish civil war; the Russians were consequently despised. Whereas the Germans had helped Franco into power, by sending men, planes, and officers to help the war effort, therefor they were close allies. To further complicate things Germany began the war a friend of the Russians. As for the Allies, General Franco had received some military training in France, under the guidance of Marshals Petain, and Foch, who had been badly humiliated by the Nazis. And stemming from his time in France he developed a great respect for the military traditions of the French. Therefore helping the Nazis would be to stab the French in the back. An idea repugnant to General Franco "No Spanish hidalgo would have done that."1 (A hidalgo is a child that inherits nothing from the family their life choices being the church, or soldering.) Concerning the Americans and British, Spain had absolutely no argument with them at all. The Americans and English were sending valuable raw materials to Spain in an effort to keep her neutral.2 So as a whole the Spanish people felt torn, they didn't want to help the Germans because they were allied with an enemy, and fighting a friend. Furthermore Spain did not want to fight America or Britain. To compound things further Spain did owe Germany. They had helped Franco to power by supplying soldiers, pilots, and machines while he lead his troops to victory over the republicans of Spain.
In order to understand the effects of the Spanish Civil War, the atmosphere of Spain prior to 1936 needs to be understood as well. Spain, unlike major European powers, never experienced a bourgeois revolution and was therefore still dominated by a significant aristocracy. However, Spain had gone through several civil wars and revolutions making violence one of the most common devices for change. It, also, had undergone several cycles of reform, reaction from the opposition, and reversal by military uprising led by a dictator before 1936 (Preston 18).
Dr. Richard Drake, a history professor at the University of Montana who teaches classes on terrorism, states “the Italian landscape and ways of life changed profoundly during the 1960s...yet, for many of those Italians…the social and economic transformation seemed much less historically significant than the problem of terrorism”. Dr. Drake cites statistics to confirm this: in a national survey taken in the early 1980s, nearly 40% of Italians responded that they felt the issue of terrorism in their country was the most historically significant event in the preceding half-century. Based on this evidence, it seems that a significant portion of the Italian population – workers and private owners alike, one can reasonably surmise – felt fear at the terror of the Red Brigades, implicating it as a nationwide phenomenon. The fact that such a large proportion of Italians felt threatened by terrorism suggests, not implausibly, that this fear spread even to the working class – the very people whom the Red Brigades claimed to represent. In fact, Drake states that terrorism “was an issue that cut across class and regional lines, affecting the entire society”. The Red Brigades’ claim of being a pro-worker organization is compromised when one considers the effects the organization had on the whole of Italy. It, therefore, further supports the assertion that the Red Brigades had a stronger desire to commit violence than a desire for pursuing communism. There is one final point to be made; a 1988 article for The Gazette, a Montreal newspaper, states that in reference to the murder of Italian politician Roberto Ruffilli, his “state funeral…televised nationwide, attracted leaders of government, industry and the church and politicians of across the political
Nationalism is a devotion and loyalty to one’s own nation, with primary emphasis on furthering its interests as opposed to those of other countries. This feeling widely spread throughout Europe during the 19th and 10th centuries and caused many problems. The Slavic people of Bosnia and Herzegovina wanted to break away from Austria-Hungary and unify with other Slavic nations. Russia as a Slavic nation backed up the two countries in this matter, therefore causing tensions between Austria-Hungary and itself. Nationalism was also a source of anger between France and Germany as France resented its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871).
These horrors caused by nationalism seem to be at the opposite end of the spectrum from the promising ideal of democracy. As Ghia Nodia pointed out, many analysts view nationalism as “fundamentally antidemocratic” (3). What these anti-nationalists fail to realize is that nationalism has also called force heroism and even sacrifice throughout history. Numerous people have risked their lives to restore democracy and civil rights in their nations, when they could easily have chosen comfortable exile elsewhere. Indeed, nationalism is the very basis of democratic government because it unites the citizens as “we the people”, supports the common political destiny, and nurtures trust toward the government.
By the beginning of 1936, Spain was an authoritarian country. Francisco Franco an authoritarian dictator of Spain was the head of the state government. Adopting his most recognized name entitled “El Caudillo” (the leader). His ruling and orders caused a negative impact in the country. He had the absolute control over the country’s economy and government. As a result, by having too much control this impacted the country and caused some major economic and government effects. Many Spaniards started moving west were communism and a shortage of jobs were available to them.
Spain is a parliamentary monarchy. Chief of state is the hereditary monarch and the head of government is the President of the Government. The President designates the cabinet which is called the Council of Ministers. Spain is also has a bicameral legislative branch. The General Courts or National Assembly or Las Cortes Generales consists of the Senate or Senado and the Congress of Deputies or Congreso de los Diputados (CIA World Factbook). In order for legislation to pass the two chambers must agree. Proposals of laws issued by the Senate are discussed at Congress in a Plenary Session in order to be accepted or tabled veto or be amended. The proposal of the law passes to the study of a Commission. The Commission writes a short text about the proposal which will be discussed and voted in Plenary Session. Once the text is approved by the Congress proposal of law is submitted by its President to the Senate. Senate may then accept, block a veto or make amendments. If Senate rejects the text by an absolute majority then the text goes back to Congress which can at that point either approve the bill or proposal of law by the same majority required at the Senate or Congress can wait for two months and approve the text by a simple majority. In both cases the text is the one approved initially by Congress. If Senate introduces amendments, Congress only has to accept or reject them by a simple majority. If the text is accepted without any modifications then the text is ready to be sanctioned by the King (U.S. Library of Congress).
Poland is located in between former territories of Russia, Czechoslovakia and Germany. Historically, these countries were stronger than Poland during the 19th and 20th centuries. As a result this lead to nationalism and a change in the view of the nobility in Poland. Overall, nationalism is described as a feeling people have of being loyal and proud of their country. In regards to the people of Poland, they felt proud and loyal to Poland, but were often controlled by other countries. This feeling of nationalism became as a strong gradual movement in the 19th century due to the control. The following themes of the political background, type of nationalist feelings and movements, and wars fought affecting nationalism in Poland will be analyzed in this essay.
Beginning in 1966, the military caused radical leaders to disappear as a method of state terrorism. In addition to army violence, guerrillas also used violence to promote their cause. To justify this violence, the Ejército Guerrillero de los Pobres (Military Guerrillas of the Poor), a new radical organization, deemed it “popular justice.” The individuals tried were charged and often killed by guerrillas for counterrevolutionary acts committed during the 1960s. This violence continued throughout the 1970s and escalated in 1978, when the existing armed opposition groups began to fight with the military. The government responded to this engagement with persecution and repression directed at discontent. Instead of fining, or sending criminals to jail, law enforcement employed death squads of police officers to deal with many instances of petty crime. Disputes were settled by assassination, rather than arbitration. During this period, radical leaders were killed, leading many to believe that the government was involved, and that death squads were given lists of targets. In addition to police violence, guerrilla violence also increased. These groups burned houses, killed innocent men, women and children, and completely destroyed villages routinely. As the War continued, violence no longer involved only guerrillas and the army; it
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...ed what is doing, to support reconstruction of economy and society, to construct a society of Basque, university of cooperative movement to work democratic management in development, peace, and justice, and education to have enough human and financial resource for suited education of each member.