Introduction
Psychopathy is a personality disorder whose core diagnostic features include increased fearlessness, shallow affect, callousness, and poor behavioral inhibition. The actions of psychopaths often come at a large cost to society and its citizens, and their empathetic deficit is one of the reasons psychopaths can be so efficiently destructive in many people’s lives. The importance of understanding this deficit cannot be over-asserted. If psychopathic empathetic deficit can be understood, treatment would likely not only expand in variety but in effectiveness. Thus, this research may provide a possible remedy to a costly societal problem due not only the actions of criminal psychopaths but criminal offenders in general . However, the neural mechanism behind this empathetic deficit is still poorly understood. One common hypothesis to explain empathetic deficit is an inability to process emotional stimuli, especially expressive faces, in psychopaths.
Kawasaki et al. (2001) explored the relationship between emotional sensory stimuli and the prefrontal cortex. They looked at neuron response in a 48-year old epilepsy patient using depth electrodes to record neuron activity. They found a short latency to aversive stimuli in the ventral prefrontal cortex.
The inability for individuals high in psychopathy to process emotional stimuli can further be explored by assessing how they respond to specific emotional stimuli, specifically facial expressions. Decety et al. (2014) did an in-depth look at facial expression processing in individuals high in psychopathy with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Participants viewed fearful, sad, happy, and pained dynamic facial expressions. They found that individuals with high PC...
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...otional faces, is a primary factor in the empathetic deficit that is characteristic of a psychopathic personality disorder diagnosis. The specific mechanism may be determined by the timing of activation in BA44, the amygdala, and the PFC. If an early activation of BA44 is found, this will indicate that a deficit in empathy most likely stems from a problem with the mirror neuron system, and since an individual high in psychopathy cannot process faces correctly, the link between emotional faces and the amygdala will be broken and decreased amygdala activity will result. The PFC uses emotional input from the amygdala to make decisions, so a deficit in the amygdala from BA44 will result in callous decisions that ignore fear responses in other humans. This would explain how psychopaths are able to ignore individuals who are in pain or frightened when most humans cannot.
Hare used these core factors to develop the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised assessment tool that helps detect psychopathy in people. They developed this theory because psychopathic behavior was thought of as miscellaneous of a topic to be categorized in one or two factors. The four recommended factors proposed by Hare and Neumann are: Interpersonal, Affective, Lifestyle and Antisocial. The first factor, interpersonal consists of superficial charm, manipulation, pathological lying, and a grandiose sense of self-worth. Secondly, the affective factor involves the lack of remorse or guilt, shallow affect, callous and/or lack of empathy, and failure to accept responsibility for own actions. The third factor is lifestyle, which comprises of need for stimulation and/or proneness to boredom, parasitic lifestyle, impulsivity, irresponsibility, unsatisfactory work habits, and lack of realistic long-term goals. Finally the fourth factor is antisocial and contains poor behavioral controls, early behavior problems, juvenile delinquency, criminal versatility, and revocation of conditional release (Hare & Neumann, 2005, p.58-59). According to Hare and Neumann “The 4 psychopathy factors are significantly interrelated, and thus can be comprehensively explained by a single superordinate (that is, psychopathy) factor.” (Hare, R. D., & Neumann, C. S.
Psychopathy; the trait that truly distinguishes humans from ¨machines¨, emotionful to emotionless. Within the novel American Psycho by Bret Easton Ellis, one may logically assume that the protagonist, Patrick Bateman is indeed implied to be a psycho as the title suggests. However upon further analyzation, Bateman is revealed to be an unreliable narrator, he does not captivate the reader with all of his emotions verbally, for they are revealed through his actions. Bateman certainly does murder people, however, clinically murder doesn´t rule somebody to be a psychopath. Bateman feels no visible remorse for the victims he kills, because Bateman lives in an artificial hyperbole of a yuppie world where no love is shown, all relationships superficial.
In 1997 Vilayanur Ramachandran and his colleagues from the University of California at San Diego headed a research study. The team studied patients of temporal lobe epilepsy measuring galvanic skin response on the left hands of the patients (11). This measurement allowed the research team to monitor arousal (specific autonomic nervous system response) and indirectly surmise the communication between the inferior temporal lobe and the amygdala, both important in response related to fear and arousal (9). In addition to two control groups a religious control group and a non-religious control group, each group was shown forty words, including violent words, sexual words, and simple words (like "wheel"), and finally, religious-related words. The results of the study showed a greater arousal in the temporal lobe epilepsy sufferers to religious words in comparison to the non-religious, whom were aroused by sexual words, and religious control groups, whom were aroused by religious and sexual words (10).
Identifying the mystery of the psychopath can prove to help the them and the general public. Early awareness of the common psychopaths among us will reduce the impact on society. Further research is still needed to better help the psychopath and the general population.
...ide the limbic system, which indicate that psychopaths use non-limbic, cognitive strategies to process affective stimuli. The third study discovered significant reduced activation for fearful faces in areas responsible for processing facial emotion in psychopaths. Also, psychopathic individuals displayed reduced visual cortical activation when being exposed to both fearful and happy faces, suggesting that the neural underpinnings for processing happy facial expressions are intact in psychopathic individuals, but are less responsive regular individuals. Abnormal facial emotion recognition processing leads to violent, inappropriate, and less empathic behavior. While the etiology of this disorder is still unknown, these experiments have constructed a foundation for future research to uncover more about the abnormalities lying within the psychopathic brain.
Triarchic Conceptualization of Psychopathy: Developmental Origins of Disinhibition, Boldness, and Meanness. " Development and Psychopathology 21.03 (2009): 913–9. Cambridge Journals. 7 July 2009. Web.
The focus of this literature review is on the patterns of amygdala activation and its role in attentional threat assessment, as well the effects of the neuropeptide oxytocin on the amygdala. The amygdala plays an important role in human threat assessment. In both humans and primates, the identification of facial expressions and their direction of gaze is a necessary aspect of social behavior, and the amygdala plays a large role in this function (Boll, Gamer, Kalisch, & Buchel, 2011, p. 299). From a medical standpoint, the study of the amygdala would help in understanding the neurological basis of many behavior disorders such as borderline personality disorder and post traumatic stress disorder. These studies make use of novel techniques with a combination of functional MRI and eye tracking based face perception tasks. More recent studies have involved more precise imaging in order to observe specific regions of the amygdala, rather than the amygdala as a whole structure. The amygdala is strongly influenced by fearful and angry faces, which stimulate feelings of threat. The amygdala also exhibits differential activation in different sexes, thus having extensive implications on tailoring drugs for mood disorders in the different sexes (Lischke et al., 2012, p. 1432).
Psychopathy has fascinated the public for years due to the gruesome and evil portrayal it has received in the media. Psychopathy is defined in the DSM-III as a personality disorder characterized by enduring antisocial behavior, diminished empathy and remorse, and disinhibited or bold behavior (Patrick, Christopher, Fowles, Krueger, Rober, 2009). Psychopathy represents a cluster of different dimensions of personality found amongst the general population to varying degrees (Patrick et al, 2009). The diagnostic definition is meant to be applied to adults, however psychopathology can occur in children. Controversy surrounds the topic of childhood mental illness because the brain is not fully developed until the age of 18; thus allowing the possibility that symptoms are the result of growing up and will change. The triarchic model, formulated by Christopher J. Patrick, is the most commonly used model in diagnosing adult and childhood psychopathy. This model suggests that different conceptions of psychopathy emphasize three observable characteristics to varying degrees; boldness, disinhibition and meanness (Patrick, et al, 2009). Boldness is the first observable characteristic and is comprised of low fear including stress-tolerance, toleration of unfamiliarity and danger, and high self-confidence and social assertiveness. Disinhibition; characterized by poor impulse control including problems with planning and foresight, lacking affect and urge control, demand for immediate gratification, and poor behavioral restraints. Meanness is defined as lacking empathy and close attachments with others, disdain of close attachments, use of cruelty to gain empowerment, exploitative tendencies, defiance of authority, and destructive excitement seek...
One area of research in psychopathy focuses on the set of structures in the brain known as the limbic system, but more specifically on a structure known as the amygdala. According to neuropsychology class slides, the amygdala is involved in emotions and storage of emotions in memory as well as the fear response when encountering threatening environmental stimuli. Osumi and colleagues (2012) note that the affective and interpersonal facets of psychopathy, such as cold-heartedness and lack of empathy, which are thought to be the core features of psychopathy, are associated with reduced activity in the amygdala. This is coupled with the fact that a less functional amygdala is associated with a psychopathic individual’s exhibition of antisocial behaviors, at least in part because he will not perceive the threat of punishment as a consequence of his actions. So whether it be the acts against other people or the acts of justice that may be carried out against the perpetrator, the psychopath will perceive both as less significant, as compared to a non-psychopathic individual. (Osumi et al., 2012)
The introduction of the book introduces Dr. Robert Hare’s research on psychopaths. He and two graduate students wrote a paper detailing an experiment they preformed on a group of random adult males. They recorded the brain waves of the group doing a simple language activity.
...res of the psychopaths and gives the reader various examples of these individuals playing out these characteristics in everyday life. A widely used checklist is provided so the reader can get a wide spanning view of what is accounted for when scoring a psychopath. This form of research is very important within the deceitfulness of this population; it allows the professional to ignore their words and examine their actions. Hare made it clear that it is not uncommon for there to be an emotional and verbal disconnect from their actions. With virtually no emotional functioning psychopaths feel no remorse for the offenses that they commit and it is very important that we work towards using the opportunities we have to study and assist these populations; not only for them but for ourselves.
A child or an adolescent being diagnosed with psychopathy is a controversial concept and yet there are a number of studies that purport to assess psychopathic traits within these groups. This has stemmed from evidence that key symptoms of psychopathy (at least when looking into the histories of adult psychopathic patients) have been indicative of an early onset with symptoms beginning in childhood or early adolescence. (Johnstone & Cooke, 2004). Psychopathy, at least in adults, is a viable construct and is often indicative of criminality, violence, substance abuse and results in decidedly poorer responsivity to treatment and as such highlights the importance of recognizing these early symptoms and planning intervention and treatment strategies. (Johnstone & Cooke, 2004; Skeem, Monahan, & Mulvey, 2003; Hempill, Hare, & Wong, 1998; Salekin, Rogers & Sewell, 1996).
Scientists consider nature as a reason for psychopathy because the way their brains are set up. One theory suggests that the one region located in the brain that is less active in psychopaths is the amygdala which is normally linked with fear. In “The Wisdom of Psychopaths” Dutton explains that studies have been done and have proven that the brain has a dysfunction. Dutton also explains a case study that he has done with the thought of killing one person over killing five. Psychopaths have no problem killing that one person. There is no dilemma in their brain; the thought of someone dying does not affect them emotionally. Other brain studies measuring different aspects of the integration of emotions with other human experiences have shown the same abnormalities when it come...
The media most often showcases psychopaths as individuals who are inherently evil and dangerous towards themselves and others. Yet, this concept of psychopathy goes far beyond this idea of pure evil and instead necessitates a needed psychological understanding. These individuals, psychopaths, are generally characterized by a lack of empathy and conscience. Indeed, psychopath’s indifference to the repercussions of their actions combined with other characteristics such as hostility and aggression make for a potentially dangerous personality (Lyken, 1996, p.30). In order to identify a psychopath’s recidivism, it is important to differentiate them from sociopaths who, instead of having a psychological impairment that makes it difficult for them to socialize, have been systematically under socialized (Lyken, 1996, p.30). In accordance. psychologists have developed the methods such as the Psychopathy Checklist- Revised (PCL-R) to help identify those with psychopathic tendencies (Walters, 2012, p.409). That is why predictions of recidivism among psychopaths is most efficient when done
According to research, psychopathic behavior can take many forms not all of which are violent. Ultimately psychiatrists say that there are pieces of a brain’s emotional machinery missing. As a result making psychopaths lack empathy, guilt or the ability to simply sow remorse (180rule.com). In an interview with James Fallon, a neuroscientist and neuroanatomist, states that there isn’t an acceptable definition of the word, psychopaths and that some psychologists do not even recognize it as a syndrome (Flatow). The closest way to identify a psychopath is through the Psychopathy Checklist – Revised, commonly known as the PCL-R (Hare). This test is used to determine if an individual has a mid- psychopathic disturbance, moderate psychopathic disturbance or if they are psychopathic (Brinkley). The test is scored on a 3 point scale (0, 1, and 2) with the highest score being a 40 which denotes a prototypical psychopath (Hare). When an individual scores a 30 or above it will qualify the individu...