There are 5 different classes of antibody: IgG, IgM, IgD, IgE and IgA. What makes them different from one another is the amino acid sequences found in the Fc region of the heavy chain. Since effector function relies on the amino acid sequences in the Fc region, hence some of the functions they provide are class specific. In total, there are 4 main effector functions of antibodies: neutralization of microorganisms and toxins, antibody-mediated opsonisation and phagocytosis of microorganisms, antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity and activation of complement pathway. Neutralization of microorganisms is where the antibodies bind to the microorganisms, preventing it from interacting with the cell surface receptor. By binding to the microorganisms, it also prevent the spread of infection from cell to cell. Neutralization of toxins is completed by the antibodies blocking the toxins of microorganism by binding to the cell surface receptors. This then inactivate the harmful effects of the toxins. The same goes to virus neutralization where antibodies bind to the virus and block it from attac...
...y to CMV once it’s present in the body. Once the vaccine was tested on several animals it was concluded that were unable to become infected due to the fact the immune system establish neutralizing antibodies. As result, it blocked CMV from entering and infecting major targeted cells. The vaccine allows the immune system to react rapidly and effectively if recurrence occurs.
The purpose of this investigation was to identify an unknown bacterium. “At any time there are millions of bacteria living around, on, or inside us” (The Plague). Bacterium can’t be identified by merely looking at it. Many bacteria have the similar appearances in growth. “In most cases, detection is based on the reaction of an enzyme with a certain substrate” (Sigma-Aldrich). Identification is usually based on the results of the bacterium’s cells metabolic capacities.
Bloodborne pathogens are viruses that deteriorate cells within the body. A virus is a submicroscopic parasitic organism that feeds on cells. Viruses are dependent on cells for their nutrients so the virus survive and reproduce. Every virus consists of either deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA). A virus can contain a strand of one or the other, but not both. This RNA or DNA is contained within a protein shell for protection. A virus is a parasite that is dependent upon cells for metabolic and reproductive requirements. By using the cell the virus makes the host very ill by redirecting cellular activity to make more viruses.
We continue to elucidate mechanism of antibody-mediated viral neutralization by defining the epitopes of a panel of neutralizing and cross-neutralizing anti-H5 antibodies using a yeast display system and crystal structure of mAbs in complex with antigens.
What are microorganisms? They are organisms that you have to view with a microscope. The three that I will be discussing are bacteria, viruses, and prions. Of the three, a bacterium is the only one that can be helpful to us in many situations, and they are also the most diverse organism on the earth. The structure, reproduction, and the diseases bacteria, viruses, and prion cause are all different. Let’s begin to compare these microorganisms.
One thing that must be noted is that contrary to popular belief, infectious agents such as viruses, bacteria, parasites, etc. are not desig...
Pathogens are a type of microorganism that spreads viral and bacterial diseases. These diseases when present in human blood and body fluids are known as blood borne pathogens, and can spread from one person to another. (Worcester polytechnic institute) The most serious types of blood borne diseases are the hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV), which can cause liver damage; and HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), which is responsible for causing AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome). The blood borne pathogens can be spread when the blood or body fluids (semen, vaginal fluid, breast milk, and amniotic fluid) of an infected individual comes into contact with mucous membranes or an open sore or cut on the skin of another person. Mucus membranes are located in the eyes, nose, mouth, and other areas as well. ("Bloodborne pathogens: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia") Two of the most common ways that pathogens are transmitted is through the exchange of fluids during sexual intercourse or by sharing infected IV needles. (Worcester polytechnic institute)
The virus has direct impact on the immune system, and it is known to infect macrophages. It has been hypothesized that infection of macrophages is one of the causes for development of hemorrhage. The virus also causes high production of cytokines. Due to infection, lymphocytes die in large numbers, causing reduction of T-cells and natural Killers (Hensley, Jon...
Editor Noel Merino of Should Vaccinations Be Mandatory? states that, “Vaccination is the process by which pathogenic cells are injected into a healthy person in an attempt to cause the body to develop antibodies to a particular virus or bacterium” (Merino 7). Once the antibodies
This immunity is dependent upon our body to be exposed to a particular type of pathogen once before. After the exposure, our body’s immune system learns of a way to counteract the foreign substance. The immune system learns the most effective way to counter each antigen that enters and then retains that strategy until the same pathogen attacks on it again. It completely customizes its attack, adapts to new conditions and remembers the information. This why people are given shots of inactivated viruses. When these viruses enter the blood stream, the body thinks that they are harmful pathogens and then develops a way of counteracting to them. After battling these viruses, they remember their form of attack, so in case these same harmful viruses enter the blood stream again, they can deal with them quickly and efficiently. Lymphocytes (T and B cells are required for this immunity). The antibodies IgA are expressed in our body on the mucous surface of the gut. When foreign substances enter, the intestine, they kill those pathogens before they can even grow in the
IgG is the uncontrolled production of abnormal immunoglobulin (IgG) proteins, which fight bacteria and viruses. This abnormal immunoglobulin has no benefit in the body, and, as it increases in amount, it crowds out normally functioning immunoglobulins. This is the most common types of myeloma, accounting for 60-70% of all cases.
They’re out there! You can’t see them but they can see you. Right at this very moment they are living on and in your body, and there is nothing you can do about it!
Leboffe, M. J., & Pierce, B. E. (2010). Microbiology: Laboratory Theory and Application, Third Edition 3rd Edition (3rd Ed.). Morton Publishing
attacked by a virus or disease, the cells will recognize and activate a defense to kill them off.
Knowledge is power when discussing the classes you have taken in college and how it affects your everyday life. Microbiology is one of those important classes where although for a majority of majors you do not have to take it and therefore will not learn the information discussed in it, other majors such as biology and nursing require you to take it. They will require you to take it because you will encounter some of the information being taught in it in the work field. As a nurse practitioner I have worked in the field with many patients who were diagnosed with Leprosy, Escherichia coli, Salmonella and other bacterial diseases. All of these diseases that I have encountered in patients were ones I was familiar with due to learning about them as a student in microbiology at CSUB. My children plan on