Humans, like all mammals, have evolved an intimate relationship with a consortium of microorganisms that inhabit tissues and body fluids in contact with the external environment. The gut microbiota defines the entirety of microorganisms residing in the human gastrointestinal tract. Primarily found in the large intestine, these microorganisms outnumber humans cells by a factor of ten. The gut microbiome is the collective genome of these diverse microorganisms which consist primarily of bacteria but also of fungi, archaea and viruses. Often referred to as our ‘forgotten organ’, the gut microbiome plays a major role in the health of its host, providing crucial functions for food digestion, metabolic homeostasis, immune cell development and homeostasis …show more content…
Anaerobic bacteria ferment undigested carbohydrates into short-chain fatty acids, such as acetate or butyrate. Various types of cells have receptors to these short chain fatty acids; some of these are involved in the development of diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease and ulcerative colitis (Le Poul et al. 2003). Gut microbes also synthesise micronutrients such as B vitamins and cooperate by sharing metabolites (Magnusdóttir et al. 2015). Microorganisms in our gut provide complementary pathways not only for the metabolism of compounds from our diets but also of drugs. A study on mice showed that intestinal microbiota are heavily involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics (Björkholm et al. 2009). Furthermore, gut microbiota have implications on host physiology, particularly adiposity. A paper by Le Chatelier et al. (2013) showed that microbiota composition varied between lean and obese individuals. In a study on mice by Turnbaugh et al. (2006), the microbiome of obese mice exhibited an increased capacity for energy harvest and transfer of the microbiota to non-obese mice increased their mean fat body weight, suggesting that a change in gut microbiota can induce obesity. Furthermore, the use of antibiotics heavily affects microbial gut communities by allowing pathogenic bacteria to grow and may increase …show more content…
The gastrointestinal tract communicates with the central nervous system (CNS) via various pathways; one such pathways is the vagus nerve, the longest nerve in the human body. The communication between the brain and the gut microbiome is bidirectional; either can affect the functioning of the other. Studies in mice have shown that environmental stress causes dramatic effects on the microbial communities in the gut (Tannock and Savage 1974). The significant effects of gut microbes on brain function have only recently seen a spike of interest in scientific research. Via the production of neurotransmitters or their precursors (including serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline) or via hormones (e.g. cortisol, gherkin, leptin) the microbial organisms in our gut act upon neural processes (Mayer et al. 2015). Neural processes affected range from emotional and social behaviour to neural disorders. Studies in mice indicate a role of the gut microbiota in anxiety levels and pain perception (Neufeld et al. 2011). Such findings are also evident in human diseases. For instance, a study by Xu and Wang (2015) found evidence of a role of gut metabolites produced by gut microbes in Alzheimer’s disease. The implications of gut microbiota alterations for the treatment of common diseases is a major topic of research
Jennifer Ackerman's main focus in her article The Ultimate Social Network, is that of the functions concerning bacteria within humans. Although scientists have had presumptions about humans being proficient in governing their body’s innermost structure, they soon come to recognize the sophistication of our inner space which holds an extensive plethora of bacteria and other microorganisms that lie within each and every one of us. Moreover, scientists' new and emerging view of how the human body operates, and the cause of increasing present-day diseases (i.e. obesity and different autoimmune disorders) are uncovered by analyzing effects of certain microbe species in our bodies. By italicizing on points such as the above, in conjunction with bacteria's genetic variations, and modern computing technology, the author proves that scientists are quickly progressing with the characterization the most prevalent species of microbes, which, in her opinion, is definitely paying off.
According to the article The mechanism and efficacy of probiotics in the prevention of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea there is a great concern about increasing incidence of C. difficile infection due to use of broad spectrum antibiotics. Clindamycin, third generation of cephalosporins and flouroquinolones are considered high risk antibiotics. It is believed that normal gastrointestinal flora has potential effect in inhibition C.difficile growth and toxin A,B release which offen associated with sever diarrhea resulting in patient’s mortality and other comorbidities. After first episode, there is a high chance for relapses due to reduction serum IgG antibodies to toxin A and colonic IgA secretion cells.
*Rohike, F., & Stollman, N. (2012). Fecal microbiota transplantation in relapsing Clostridium difficile infection. Therapeutic Advances in Gastroenterology. 5 (6), 403-419.
Every human has microbiomes that are personalized for the individual and are extremely important to maintaining a good health standing, however, these microbiomes can be capable of contracting a disease. One of the most common areas for these microbiomes to contract something that could be harmful to the person’s health is called the oral microbiomes, which are found in the mouths of humans. Within the biofilms of the oral cavity, rests these oral microbiomes that maintain a healthy equilibrium in the mouth. However, if not taken care of properly, oral microbiomes can be taken over by a pathogen that can quickly turn the state of the person’s mouth from a healthy equilibrium to a very unhealthy equilibrium (1). Some bacteria found in the oral cavity can be an extremely danger.
Although gross medical advancements have allowed the human population to live longer and fuller lives without the threat of death from infectious diseases, it is apparent that we are now dealing with a different phenomenon that may be just as harmful to our health. The impact of psychological, social and environmental factors from our daily lives is having a drastic impression on the mental and physical wellbeing of our society. It has been shown in various studies that psychological and neurological factors influence the immune system and can have an effect on our health (Breedlove, Rosenzweig & Watson, 2010). As we allow various stressors, poisonous substances, unhealthy diets and lack of rest to overwhelm our existence, we are inevitably shortening our life span and killing our bodies.
In the brainstem, the most primitive part of the brain, lie clusters of serotonin neurons. The nerve fiber terminals of the serotonergic neurons extend all throughout the central nervous system from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord. This neurotransmitter is responsible for controlling fundamental physiological aspects of the body. In the central nervous system (CNS), serotonin has widespread and often profound implications, including a role in sleep, appetite, memory, learning, temperature regulation, mood, sexual behavior, cardiovascular function, muscle contraction, and endocrine regulation. Not only does this bioamine control physiological aspects of the body, but it also has an involvement in behaviors like eating, sleeping and aggression. Serotonin has been noted to produce an inhibitory effect on the nervous system that calms, soothes and generates feelings of general contentment and satiation.
6. S. Yoshimoto, T. Loo, K. Atarashi, et al. Obesity-induced gut microbial metabolite promotes liver cancer through senescence secretome, Nature, 499: 97-101, 2013.
...standing the nature of relationship between the residing microbes inside human cells and about their function is very important to put an end to this war and to live in peace with the natural organisms that are benefitting human body and their survival has become our primary importance.
Among hospitalized patients around the world, Clostridium difficile is the primary source of infectious diarrhea. Previously, continuously unbalanced intestinal microbiota, usually due to antimicrobials, was deemed a precondition of developing the infection. However, recently, there have been alterations in the biology from virtually infecting the elderly population exclusively, wherein the microbiota in their guts have been interrupted by antimicrobials, to currently infecting individuals within of all age groups displaying no recent antimicrobial use. Furthermore, recent reports have confirmed critical occurrences among groups previously assumed to be of minimal risk—pregnant women, children, and individuals with no previous exposure to antimicrobials, for instance. Unfortunately, this Gram-positive, toxin-producing anaerobic bacterium is estimated to cost US critical care facilities $800 million per year at present, suggesting the need for effective measures to eliminate this nosocomial infection (Yakob, Riley, Paterson, & Clements, 2013).
Russell, W. R., Gratz, S. W., Duncan, S. H., Holtrop, G., Ince, J., Scobbie, L., . . . Flint, H. J. (2011). High-protein, reduced-carbohydrate weight-loss diets promote metabolite profiles likely to be detrimental to colonic health. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 93(5), 1062-1072. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.110.002188
Soloman, G. Psychoneuroimmunology: Interactions between the central nervous system and the immune system. J Neurosci Res 18:1-9 (1987).
Kumar, Anil, Puneet Rinwa, Gurleen Kaur, and Lalit Machawal. "Stress: Neurobiology, consequences, and management." Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences, 2013: 1-7.
Microbes are microscopic life forms, usually too small to be seen by the naked eye. Although many microbes are single-celled, there are also numerous multi-cellular organisms. The human body has 10-100 trillion microbes living on it, making it one giant super-organism. Since the first link between microbes and diseases was made, people have been advised to wash their hands. Scientists, however, have recently started to investigate more closely how the microbes that call the human body home affect our health. While some microbes cause disease, others are more beneficial, working with our bodies in many subtle ways.
Wise, Roy A. “Role of dopamine in food reward and reinforcement”. National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 15 June 2006. Web. 24 Apr. 2014. .
Microbes are major key components in both are homes and industrial food preparation. There are number of lactic acid which is a form of bacteria which is a large group of beneficial bacteria used in certain foods while they are getting prepared such as yogurt, cheese, sour cream, butter milk and other type of fermented milk products. Things such as vinegars are produced by bacterial acetic acid fermentation. Yeast is also major use in the making of beer and wine and also for the leaving of breads. This also involves fermentations to convert corn and other vegetable carbohydrates to also make beer, wine or gasohol but also bacteria is the agents of are other foods. Other fermented foods will include things such as soy sauce, olives and cocoa. (Microbes and human life, 2013) Single cell proteins are known as dried cells of microbes which are used in protein supplement shacks. They are also called “novel food” and “minifood”. The production of this requires micro-organisms which then serve as the protein source and then the substrate which is biomass which they grow on them. There are a number of both these sources that we are able to use for the production of single cell protein (SCP). The micro-organisms used belong to the following groups of Algae, Fungi and bacteria. (Slide Share, 2012)