Gender inequalities are a large problem in terms of measuring economic production. The United Nations sees gender equality as an important goal, as four of the eight Millennium Development Goals for lowering poverty levels are directly related to women. While men and women both deal with discrimination and exclusion from the labor market, women are forced to contend with more barriers to full participation. There are several sources for these inequalities, including gaps in education, lack of resource access, the inability to access the labor market and structural inequalities (United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 2012).
How Household Production Can Be Measured
There exists a lack of recognition of women’s “reproductive” and other unpaid work, like homemaking and leisure activities. Women tend to spend a larger amount of time on these activities than men. When it comes to household activities, like housework, food preparation, grocery shopping and caring for household members, women spend nearly double the amount of time men do (American Time Use Survey, 2007). This non-market production has interested national accountants and economists for a while, but have not been included in the national income and product accounts (NIPAs). Early in the 1970s, Nordhaus and Tobin developed a set of extended accounts that took government and household capital services, nonmarket work and leisure into account when looking at gross national product (GNP). Taking these in account had a tremendous effect on GNP, as it was nearly doubled in 1965 (Bridgman, Dugan, Lal, Osborne, & Villones, 2012). In the 1980s, Jorgenson and Fraumeni developed the “lifetime incomes approach” to valuing investments in human capital, adding around $14 bi...
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...vey. (2007). Time spent in detailed primary activities 1 and percent of the civilian population engaging in each detailed primary. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Bridgman, B., Dugan, A., Lal, M., Osborne, M., & Villones, S. (2012, May). Accounting for Household Production in the National Accounts, 1965-2010. pp. 23-36.
Eastin, J., & Prakash, A. (2013, January 11). Economic Development and Gender Equality: Is There a Gender Kuznets Curve? World Politics, pp. 156-186.
Löfström, Å. (2009). Gender equality, economic growth and employment. Swedish Ministry of Integration and Gender Equality.
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. (2009). Measuring Gender Equality in the Economy. New York: United Nations.
United Nations Industrial Development Organization. (2012). Gender inequality and its effects on industrial development. New York: United Nations.
United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, "Consultation on Gender and Industrial Policy", Aug. 1995, URL: http://www.unrisd.org/html/focus/focus1/eng/f1e12.htm. 4/3/00.
...ence on economics growth through lowering the average quality of human capital. Moreover, economic growth is indirectly affected through the impact of gender inequality on investment and population growth. Gender inequality in education has a significant negative impact on economics growth and appears to be an important factor contributing to Africa’s and South Asia’s poor growth performance over the past 30 years. In addition to increasing growth, greater gender equality in education stimulates other important development goals such as lower fertility and lower child mortality.
Each country has different aspects that they focus on depending on their culture and beliefs. However, the most common theme around the world was the wage gap and domestic violence for women. According to the “Violence against Women” article 1 and 3 women experience violence by intimate partners worldwide (Violence against Women, 2016, pg. 1). Unfortunately, this has increased the global rate of intimate partners who have committed murders of women to 38% (Violence against Women, 2016, pg. 1). These are significate numbers, yet worldwide women are being treated worse than men are treated. The same goes for the wage gap. In the United States it is hard for a women to get a job as a CEO or high ranking yet 56.3% of women 15 years or older were working according to the Gender Inequality Index in 2013. This relates directly to a global wage gap and glass ceiling placed on women worldwide because the Gender Inequality Index states that worldwide 50.3% of women 15 and older were working in the work force. However, they were being paid less and were less likely to get promotions when compared to men. The fact that women in other countries are married at younger ages and having children also puts them at a disadvantage because they are mothers meaning they will be paid less for having children. Gender stratification is not just an Untied States problem, but a worldwide problem that needs to be
Men are likely to get hired if they have children and tend to get paid more. In contrast, women are less likely to get hired even though they have more quality and children. This is when the gender inequality come in. In this article “The Motherhood Penalty vs. the Fatherhood Bonus” the author presented the role and the impact between the roles of the genders. Michelle Budig, a sociology professor at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst put it this way, “The inequality of gender role reveals when men get paid high for having children and women pay the biggest price for the low income” (Qtd. in Miller). According to Bureau of Labor Statistics, 71 percent of mothers are with their children working at home and 40 percent are the primary bread winner (Pew Research Center). In this perspective of women working at home and men working in career shift the qualification between them. The inequality is that employer sees the father as a commit worker and a mother as a distraction in workplaces because women have extra hours of work to do at home with their children and house chores. Claire Miller states that, “one of the worst career moves a women can make is to have children” (Claire Miller). As for the women in the United States, there are a lot of negative impact for them if they decide to have babies. The quality for them shrink to the corner while men hold the advantage of having
Although Women position in the labor market of the MENA region has improved in the past few years, female participation is the MENA region is still ranked as the lowest in the world (World Bank 55). Many reasons behind that lag were highlighted in the readings. Even though several structural reforms took place, the phenomena of female limited participation persists. Thus it seems that the problem does not lie in the demand side of female labor or the structure of the institutions, as much as it lies in the supply side. In other words, women’s decreased participation is accounted to the prevalent stereotypes, social and cultural norms in the region. Such norms that are holding many women from being active in the labor market had prevailed for so long, shaping both employer and women expectations of the labor market demands- making occupational segregation by sex in the MENA region inevitable.
There are nearly as many women as there are men working, yet, as it was discovered in 2011, on average, a woman will only earn seventy-seven cents for every dollar that a man earns. Women owned businesses make up for over a quarter of all national businesses and earn more than one point two trillion dollars (“Assessing the Past, Taking Stock of the Future” 6). Since many women are now becoming are the primary sources of income in the household, making less that a man does not only negatively affect families, but also the overall economy suffers as well. These women, among many others, are the ones who end up purchasing the supplies that go toward improving communities and stimulating the economy. There is no reason that the general public should stand for this. Women should be treated equally to men in today’s American society based on their biological compositions, psychological profiles and contributions to history.
The critical rank for reducing gender inequalities should be education, labor force participation, and lastly, wages. There are obvious differences between men and women whether it’s anatomically, financially, and so forth. The gender inequalities women face compared to men is alarming and saddening. Gender stereotypes reinforce gender inequalities because stereotypes can often be internalized which results in biases against either sex. These biases against a person can result in negative results. Gender inequality has been within our society for a long time especially amongst women.
Darity William A. Inequality, Gender." International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Ed. 2nd ed. Vol. 3. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2008. 624-627. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 1 Dec. 2013.
According to (Blau, Ferber, and Winkler, 2001; Goldin, 1990), equivalent economic lives do not exist between men and women. Therefore, an ongoing concern happened as to debate the limitation of opportunities of women. Some claim that role differences should be celebrated, not stigmatized (Paglia, 1990). For some, it is difficult to change than was once thought, the male and female social interactions’ negative effects (MacKinnon, 1987; Walters, Carter, Papp, and Silverstein, 1988).
The inequality of genders is a factor to the issue of poverty. Many nations are trying their best to fix the issue of gender inequality. Gender inequality is very visible in the primary and secondary levels of education in Ghana. The amount of boys always tends to outnumber the girls. Due to the fact that many women do not have any educational background, they either end up trading or get engaged in agriculture activity. In sub-Saharan Africa, women are barely recognized in issues that are non-agriculture. About 64% of women are mainly employed in the agriculture sector. The low employment level of women makes poverty a stronghold in the household of women. Women tend to not get enough income to support themselves and their families, especially when they are single parents or the man is unemployed. Women also tend to face low employment rates, and those with a good education, who have the chance of being employed, rarely get the opportunity. The women who are lucky enough to get employed are rarely promoted due to their
Mistreatment of women in the workforce has been an ongoing issue ever since women have been introduced into the work environment. While some issues are specific to certain workplaces, others are issues that are continuously noticed almost everywhere. There are many who experience poverty around the world, but research has shown that along with ethnic and racial minorities (of said country), women have been consistently among the most disadvantaged and programs to help those in poverty that do not take gender inequality into account have consistently failed to help women out of these circumstances. (International Development Agency (USAID) “Women, Men and Development”) “Men and women often are poor and for different reasons, experience poverty differently, and have differing capacities to withstand or escape poverty.”(Whitehead, Ann Failing Women, Sustaining Poverty: Gender in Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers) There have been many instances...
Åsa Löfström´s report analyses the connection between gender equality, economic growth and employment. If we want to find an answer on the first question (Whether female employment rate matters for GDP and GDP-growth), we should first...
Parcheta, N., Kaifi, B., & Khanfar, N. (2013). Gender Inequality in the Workforce: A Human Resource Management Quandary. Journal of Business Studies Quarterly, 4(3), 240-248.
Notice that the participation of the woman in labor force is a natural response according with the evolution of the world. Castellano, Punzo and Rocca (2013) wrote in their article, there is a concern in Europe about social policies on women participation in the labor market, which the objective is promote the gender equality and revitalizing the work area through the female participation. Thus, some countries have worries about laws and rules with worker woman because there isn’t doubt that she brings benefits for the society.
...ds & Gelleny, 2007). Moreover, the status of women is independent on policy adjustments in developing countries. Governments in developing countries should organize an economically and political stable environment, to be economically attractive (Maxfield, 1998 as cited in Richards & Gelleny, 2007). Other critics state governments are forced to cut expenditures in education and social programs. This phenomenon especially affects women (Ayres and McCalla, 1997, as cited in Richards & Gelleny, 2007). Since the public sector is one of the main employers of females, women are often the most disadvantaged by governmental efforts to cut expenditures in the public sector (Hemmati and Gardiner, 2004, as cited in Richards & Gelleny, 2007). As a result, women will become unemployed and unable to expanded education among themselves or their children. (Richards & Gelleny, 2007)