The Theories of Sex and Gender
Sex and gender are two very separate factors in the debate of how
gender acquisition occurs. Sex is a biological fact determined by
the chromosomes inherited from parents. Gender however, refers to
the behaviour, beliefs, attitude and sense of identity that society
perceives as being appropriate for either a male or a female, and
therefore gender is regarded as a social fact. MOGHADDAM (1998, as
cited in HARALAMBOS et al, 2002).
There are four main theories in the gender acquisition debate,
Evolutionary Psychology, Psychoanalytical Theory, Social Learning
Theory and Cognitive-development Theory. This paper aims to describe
and evaluate Social Learning Theory and Cognitive-development Theory.
Social Learning theorists believe the development of gender occurs as
a result of a child’s social experience and think much of this
learning can be explained by conditioning and observational
learning. Sex-role and gender behaviours are learned in the same way
as any other behaviour. In terms of conditioning, parents socialise
their children, preparing them for adult gender roles by providing
them with gender-appropriate toys. In many societies girls are given
dolls and cooking equipment in preparation for the maternal and
domestic aspects of their adult gender role. BANDURA & WALTERS (1963,
as cited in HARALAMBOS et al, 2002) Social Learning theorists also
think that children learn gender roles from same sex role models such
as parents, peers, teachers and media figures who provide children
with opportunities to observe and imitate behaviours, this is known as
observational learning.
O...
... middle of paper ...
...r cognitive
and motivational factors. This new theory, Social Cognitive Theory,
suggests that a child has it’s own ability to regulate his/her own
activities according to the rules of gender appropriate behaviour.
This combines Social Learning Theory with Cognitive Development Theory
and shows a move from parental control over this process to an
understanding that children actively evaluate situations and adapt
their behaviour accordingly. This more recent theory aims to broaden
and combine earlier approaches and to develop them further.
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Haralambos.M, Rice.D, Foreman.N, Jones.S, Stenner.P, Brown.S,
Kinderman.P, Sharp.K (2002) Psychology in Focus for A Level Lancashire
Causeway Press
“We have been very conditioned by the cultures that we come from and are usually very identified with the particular gender that we happen to be a member of.” This quote by Andrew Cohen explains partially how gender identity develops, through the conditioning of our environments. The most influential factor of gender development, however, is still a very controversial issue. An analysis of the gender identification process reveals two main arguments in what factor most greatly contributes to gender development: biology differences (nature) or the environment (nurture).
Nontraditional gender socialisation can help the child develop a more complete understanding of their personality, that takes both their feminine traits and masculine traits into consideration. This can be illustrated by Jeremy telling his mother that he got to be “a complete person” (Bem, 1998, p. 190), when asked how his upbringing enhanced his life. Further this type of parenting allows the child to be more analytical of traditional gender roles and how they might be present and potentially affect their lives. This can make them more aware of them, and could help them avoid or fight against negative effects that might arise from their presents. This can often be advantageous. Bem educated her children about traditional gender roles and their negative aspects, like sexism, and through this allowed them to have the tools to identify them early on, like Emily did in nursery school (Bem, 1998, p. 119-120). When children are being educated about traditional gender roles and their disadvantages they have an easier time identifying them later on and possibly fighting
First coined by Sandra Bem in 1981, gender schema theory encompasses a cognitive account of sex typing by which schemas are developed through the combination of social and cognitive learning processes (Perle, 2011). It is significant to note that through observations of individuals within culture and society, each child is able to observe male and female typical attributes, activities, and actions (Perle, 2011). Ultimately, these perceptions lead to the development of gender segregation and guide the child’s gender-related actions and behavior. Two other critics who have utilized this theory and method are psychologists Jonathan Perle and Angela
This work (repeat the teaching) could make the kids realize and know their genders. The second step, in ages 3-5, when the kids know exactly what their gender, the parents want to let them do activity together. In this step, it is very hard to do that for boys particularly because their stereotypes about the gender are very stronger than the girls. This is back to the learning that they (boys) got from their previous step. In the third phase, we find that Kohlberg believes that children age 6 to 10 years begin to comprehend the gender differences between them. We find that kids at this stage, they begin to develop their skills on this basis. At this stage may not happen without any intervention of the parents, but the children get some confusion; for example, a child who has a tendency to carry out activities of gender, we find the parents are suffering at this stage because the child 's return to its own stereotypes. Also, at this stage, we find that the competition between the sexes is increasing somewhat, so that we see the kids are trying to prove gender personality. We can now say that the stereotype of children throughout
Homosexual is a romantic attraction that occurs between two people of the same sex. This is the endurance pattern with an aim of experiencing sexual, affection and romantic attractions which is exclusively between similar genders. This is one of the three major categories of sexual orientation in sex. There have been many issues and concerns regarding the issue of homosexuality. In any society, homosexual has always been considered as evil and ungodly (Connors 2007). It is also considered as something extra ordinary that is only practiced by a certain part of people. For this reason, there are many discussions on homosexuality and this also includes a number of theories. These researchers are forwarded to explain the cause and the origin of homosexuality in both men and women. One of the famous theories that were forwarded on homosexuality are the theories by Freud`s and Jung. This essay introduces the theories on homosexual as they were discussed by Freud and Jung. Further, I will compare and contrast Freud’s and Jung’s theories about the sexual orientation in women. In particular, what factors lead females to become homosexual?
A dominant debate in current psychological research is one on gender development. Psychologists try to understand relative importance of social and cognitive factors. Various theories are brought up in this field and in this essay two of the most standard theory in this field are going to be explained. The theories covered in this essay relate to aspects of children’s thinking that are central to their gender development. This will include, Kohlberg‘s theory of gender development (1966) and Bandura‘s theory of social cognitive development (1986). Theories like these help psychologists understand how and in which way children understand behaviour and which leads them to do so.
When separating men and women according to gender, most people would do it based on physical appearance. Would you have ever thought that you can tell whether someone is man or woman according to psyche? Psychological gender differences have had a long history dating back for more than a century. The use psychological research on women began in 1879 which also marks the beginning of formal psychology. Any research done during these years was mostly used to the notion that the white male was supreme over everyone else. This belief is a gender stereotype and children develop their gender based beliefs on such things. I believe children should develop their gender based beliefs from studies that are unbiased and doesn’t favor one gender over another.
From a young age , many individuals worldwide are socialized according to their gender and what is appropriate for males and females. Socializing according to ones gender starts from the moment you are born when the nurses give you either a blue or pink blanket to wrap the child in. This allows society to known whether the child is a male or female. The double standard for gender occurs within many areas of development for instance the clothes one wears, the toys that are placed with, the jobs and careers one chooses in their later life. Attachment given by a child's parent reinforces an individual to be socialized and children can also contribute how their parents treat and see them , these are social constructs within parenting (Ambert,2012). All of these things can be gender separated and still are in today's society. Another area where males and females are socialized differently is in the area of sexuality and what is acceptable for males is not always for the female gender. Gender specific norms govern the appropriate amount of partners , when it is acceptable to engage in sexual activity and what motivates ones behavior (Kreager &Staff, 2009). This shows society individuals are socialized according to their gender because males are socialized into behaving a different way than girls but it still be accepted as a norm. Women are taught that it is okay to have sexual relationships but they need a reason, example being in a committed relationship, where as men just need a place. This is a common perception based on ones gender , formed from a western conservative view point ( Fugere et.al, 2008). Gender socialization is a process where boys are seen to be given wings and girls are to be given roots (Myers, Spencer, Jordan...
While our natural sex is selected for us soon after our conception, however, our gender identity is not. Our psychological characteristics, the role we decided to take in society, and even our behaviors shape our gender identity. Whether your true gender identity is learned from those closest to you as a child, or if you decide to change you physical sex to match your gender identity at a point in your life, the expectations of society still play a huge role in shaping how parts of your life are lived.
According to Johnny Weir, “Masculinity is what you believe it to be... [it is] all by perception, [I believe] masculinity and femininity is something that is very old-fashioned... [there is a] whole new generation of people who aren’t defined by their race or their sex or who they like to sleep with.” This statement exemplifies the definition of gender as a concept; gender is the expectations of a sex according to the culture of society. Sexuality, within this definition of gender, reflects society’s expectations, which are created in relation to the opposite sex. The variances between cultures means that gender expectations change within different cultures. These expectations put pressure on each member of society to conform and abide by the folkways of their own culture. The creation of gender expectations by society creates a restricting definition of gender roles and sexuality that vary from culture to culture.
Sex Role Theory–expands upon this assumption and proposes that women and men learn appropriate gender roles through socialization within the culture of the family and wider society (Isaacs,
Over the decades, a significant mark of the evolution of gender is the increasing social phenomenon in how society conceptualizes gender. Gender is a system of social practices for characterizing people as two different categories, femininity and masculinity and arranging social relations of inequality on the basis of that difference (Ridgeway & Correll 2004). Gender-neutral parenting (GNP) refers to raising children outside of the traditional stereotypes of girls and boys. It involves allowing children to explore their innate personalities and abilities rather than confining them into rigid gender roles that society has shaped. It can be argued that it is through socialization children discover how to operate in gendered structures, learn
Gender has been around throughout history; however, within recent years, gender has separated itself from the traditional view of sex, e.i., male or female, and has become centered on ones masculinity or femininity. Of course gender is more than just ones masculinity or femininity, gender has become a way for one to describe, he or she, in a way in which they are different from everyone else. Gender has turned into a sense of identity, a way for one to feel different and fulfilled among all of those around them. Of course gender’s sense of freedom would seem outside of structure and only affected by one’s own agency, however, structure is a key component in establishing gender. We can look into both ethnic Mexican’s culture practices regarding sexuality, children songs and games, and see that cultural traditions still heavily influence gender, creating what is masculine and what is feminine and what is the role of each gender, as well as challenging the notions that gender is solely based on agency.
Gender is such a ubiquitous notion that humans assume gender is biological. However, gender is a notion that is made up in order to organize human life. It is created and recreated giving power to the dominant gender, creating an inferior gender and producing gender roles. There are many questionable perspectives such as how two genders are learned, how humans learn their own gender and others genders, how they learn to appropriately perform their gender and how gender roles are produced. In order to understand these perspectives, we must view gender as a social institution. Society bases gender on sex and applies a sex category to people in daily life by recognizing gender markers. Sex is the foundation to which gender is created. We must understand the difference between anatomical sex and gender in order to grasp the development of gender. First, I will be assessing existing perspectives on the social construction of gender. Next, I will analyze three case studies and explain how gender construction is applied in order to provide a clearer understanding of gender construction. Lastly, I will develop my own case study by analyzing the movie Mrs. Doubtfire and apply gender construction.
Gender and sexuality can be comprehended through social science. Social science is “the study of human society and of individual relationships in and to society” (free dictionary, 2009). The study of social science deals with different aspects of society such as politics, economics, and the social aspects of society. Gender identity is closely interlinked with social science as it is based on an identity of an individual in the society. Sexuality is “the condition of being characterized and distinguished by sex” (free dictionary, 2009). There are different gender identities such as male, female, gay, lesbian, transgender, and bisexual that exists all around the world. There is inequality in gender identities and dominance of a male regardless of which sexuality they fall under. The males are superior over the females and gays superior over the lesbians, however it different depending on the place and circumstances. This paper will look at the gender roles and stereotypes, social policy, and homosexuality from a modern and a traditional society perspective. The three different areas will be compared by the two different societies to understand how much changes has occurred and whether or not anything has really changed. In general a traditional society is more conservative where as a modern society is fundamentally liberal. This is to say that a traditional society lists certain roles depending on the gender and there are stereotypes that are connected with the genders. One must obey the one that is dominant and make decisions. On the other hand, a modern society is lenient, It accepts the individual’s identity and sexuality. There is no inequality and everyone in the society is to be seen as individuals not a part of a family unit...