Introduction
The critical period hypothesis has long been under investigation. The question here is simple: does it really exist? And if it exists, to what extent does it affect second language proficiency? Many studies seem to have proven that the critical hypothesis exists because apparently no adult after puberty has been successful in achieving native-like proficiency. On the contrary, some believe that there is no reason for such hypothesis because some late learners have been able to attain a native-like fluency.
There is obviously a certain decline in the ability to learn a second language with age. The reason for this remains controversial, with the argument focusing on whether the cause is the critical period or other factors affecting second language learning.
This paper will discuss the perspective of the critical period hypothesis. In addition, it will look at studies for and against the critical period hypothesis. Each group can lay claim to certain evidence in its favour. The paper will also focus on certain factors that may affect second language proficiency; for instance, age, native language use, and duration of stay in an area where the second language is used.
Definition of Critical Period hypothesis
Snow, Catherine and Hohle (1978) point out that “the critical period hypothesis holds that first language acquisition must occur before cerebral lateralization is complete, at about the age of puberty. One prediction of this hypothesis is that second language acquisition will be relatively fast, successful, and qualitatively similar to first language only if it occurs before the age of puberty” ( Snow, Catherine and Hohle, 1978, p. 1114).
As cited in Snow, Catherine and Hohle (1978), L...
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Piske, T., MacKay, I. & Flege, J. (2001). “Factors affecting degree of foreign accent in an
L2: a review”. J. Phonetics 29, 191–215
Snow, C. E., Hoefnagel-Höhle, M., & Hoefnagel-Höhle, M. (1978). The critical period for language acquisition: Evidence from second language learning. Child development, 49(4), 1114-1128.
Tokudome, M. (2010).” Unlikely Bedfellows: The Critical Period Hypothesis and its
Effects on Second Language Acquisition”. TPFLE, 14(1), 18-27
Weber-Fox, C., & Neville, H. (1999). Functional neural subsystems are differentially affected by delays in second language immersion: ERP and behavioral evidence in bilinguals. In D. Birdsong (Ed.), Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis (pp. 23- 38). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
This chapter focused mainly on misconceptions and attempting to clarify those misconceptions about accents. In the opinion of linguists, accent is a difficult word to define. This is due to the fact that language has variation therefore when it comes to a person having an accent or not, there is no true technical distinction because every person has different phonological aspects to their way of speaking. However, when forced to define this word, it is described as “a way of speaking” (Lippi-Green, 2012, p.44). Although Lippi- Green identified the difficulty linguists have in distinguishing between accent, dialect, and another language entirely, they were able to construct a loose way of distinguishing. Lippi- Green states that an accent can be determined by difference in phonological features alone, dialect can be determined by difference in syntax, lexicon, and semantics alone, and when all of these aspects are different from the original language it is considered another language entirely (Lippi-Green, 2012).
The author delved into the commonly held myth of individuals believing they lack accents. The origin of this myth stems from one becoming accustomed to their typical environment and “human perception being categorical”; they find that they lack unique characteristics in the way they communicate due to what is normalized in their community. The only exception to this, in the perspective of the person speaking, is when the individual goes to another area and other locals find their “new accent” to be distinct. The consequences of this mindset leads to unknowledgeable stereotypes,
There’s a long-standing argument that most people resort to when discussing whether or not children are better suited to acquire a language over adults. The “critical period hypothesis” argues, “that children are superior to adults in learning second languages because their brains are more flexible.” (McLaughlin 2) This argument is true to some extent, however, experimental research has found that adolescents and adults are able to acquire languages better based on their controlled environment. Children, on the other hand, are better able to grasp a better understanding of the pronunciation of languages compared to adults. (McLaughlin
Language is a matter that touches many American cultures. Cultures thrive on their languages and customs to define the people they are. However, second languages can divide not only people of a specific group but also members of a particular family. Several writers address the unvarying difficulty of learning a second language in America. Many rhetorical devices are used to sustain their assertions and to shape the reader. An Asian-American author speaks about multilingualism in American today. Tan (2002) uses rhetorical devices to support her claims about her frustrations with a mother who does not speak English very well. Throughout this paper, I will analyze Tan’s cause-and-effect structure, personal experiences, and pathos appeal. This essay will show how Tan supports her claim through these rhetorical elements.
After Lenneberg's (1967) advanced analyses and interpretation of critical period in regards to first language acquisition, many researchers began to relate and study age issue in second language acquisition. In this area of study, Johnson and Newport (1989) is among the most prominent and leading studies which tries to seek evidence to test the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) in second language (L2) acquisition. This study aims to find identifying answers to the question of age-related effects on the proficiency for languages learned prior the puberty.
ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics Washington DC. (1992). Myths and Misconceptions about Second Language Learning. ERIC Digest. <http://www.ericfacility.net/ericdigests/ed350885.html>
For the purposes of this paper, I have defined adulthood as including any person who is at or above the age of eighteen, because there is so little research on language learning in early adulthood versus middle or late adulthood. It is not possible to find studies about particular divisions of adulthood that have been verified by subsequent research trials, so I have included research about all ages of adulthood. Throughout this paper, I will discuss the major aspects of the body of research literature that separates adult second language learning from that of natural bilingual persons, including full immersion into the language, biological and neurological factors, the structure of both the native and second languages, age of acqui...
Many parents concerned about negative effects on child development. However, second language does not have any negative effects such as child’s speech delay or language confusion. Let’s look at r...
Eric Lenneberg was the first to propose there existed a critical period to learn a first or native language that was between that began around two and ended with the onset of puberty around thirteen years old. Lenneberg theorized that language acquisition was not possible before age two because of a lack of maturation, while post-puberty acquisition is inhibited by a loss of cerebral placicity occuring when the cerebral dominance of the language function is complete, happening around the time of puberty (Kraschen). “Children deprived of language during this critical period show atypical patterns of brain lateralization” (intro to language) Lenneberg argued that lateralization of the brain during this critical period is key to language acquisition. “The human brain is primed to develop language in specific areas of the left hemisphere but the normal process of brain specialization depends on ear...
... of the L2, they can effectively lower their affective filters. All in all, there is no ideal age to learn a second language. It all depends on the individual and his/her circumstances.
The critical period hypothesis for language acquisition was popularized by neurologist Eric Lenneberg. The hypothesis suggests that if an individual is not exposed to language during a specific period in their childhood then they will have great difficulties acquiring language later in life (Redmond, 1993). I believe the two “wild children” cases of Genie and Victor provides evidence to support the critical period hypothesis. Genie’s case supports the hypothesis because although she developed a vocabulary and despite all of her intense therapy sessions, she still was not able to create meaningful and grammatically correct sentences (Garmon, 1994). Genie’s inability to create real sentences may indicate that she endured the extreme deprivation during her critical period and it prevented her from acquiring language. Victor’s case also supports the critical period hypothesis. The professionals in the documentary The Secret of The Wild Child stated: “While Victor knew how to read simple words, he never learned how to talk” (Garmon, 1994). This quote implicates that similar to Genie, Victor developed a vocabulary,
Long, M. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W.Ritchie and T.Bhatia (eds.) Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (San Diego, CA: Academic Press), 413-68.
Further in this term-paper I am going to describe the stages in child language acquistion starting from the very birth of an infant till the onset of puberty.
Language has pioneered many interracial relationships and historical milestones. Language is a necessity for basic communication and cultural diversity. Being multilingual is a skill proven influential to a successful future. Due to rapid globalization, countries all over the world are stressing the importance of learning a second, or even third, language. With the exception of time and lack of resources, adults have very few widely applicable disadvantages to learning multiple languages. However, language learning as a child presents more complications. Some of those include not having enough funding at the elementary school level to introduce a program for secondary language, academic overload for the youth, stress for both the parent and student parties, and the mixing of languages. Not all of these complications are true in any or all situations, however, and the absence of them provides multitudes of opportunity for future career and academic success. Ultimately, it is the responsibility of the parents or the education legislation to decide whether they encourage the learning of a secondary language at the young age necessary for retention. “The general consensus is that it takes between five to seven years for an individual to achieve advanced fluency,” therefore the younger a child begins to learn, the more likely they are to benefit to the maximum potential (Robertson). Keeping the language learning in high school or beginning the process earlier is a greatly controversial discussion that is important to address because of the topic’s already lengthy suspension.
I still regret that English conversation skill and correct pronunciation were ignored in favor of the other language acquisition skills during the beginning period of learning English. Had my pronunciation and conversation been more emphasized, I would be a much better English speaker regardless of Critical Period Hypothesis for language