Мусульманская культура средних веков – это конгломерат культур народов, составлявших Арабский халифат. Истинными творцами этой культуры являются не только арабы, но и персы, а так, же отдельные представители тюркских народов. В XI-XII веках на исторической арене Ближнего Востока появляются тюрки-сельджуки. По словам «Господство сельджуков влечет за собой последствия исключительной важности. Именно в это время складывается богатейшая культурная жизнь, создается сельджукское искусство, которому предстояло сыграть огромную роль не только в жизни стран Востока, но и во всем культурном мире» (Бертельс Е.Э). Наряду с правителями государств в историю вошли имена некоторых визирей и других государственных мужей. Визирь сельджукских правителей Низам аль-Мульк благодаря своей государственной службе, просветительской деятельности известен в истории не меньше чем его правители (Алп-Арслан и Мелик шах). Еще большую популярность он приобрел как автор назидательного труда «Сиясет-наме» («Книга об управлении»). Особого внимания заслуживает его просветительская деятельность. Пользуясь безграничной свободой, предоставленной ему сюзеренами, Низам аль-Мульк открывал медресе и библиотеки. А.Язбердиев отмечает, что «... в этом вопросе пальма первенства отнюдь ему не принадлежит...». Он утверждает, что Саманиды и Газневиды в свое время уже вели подобную просветительскую работу. Однако при этом следует отметить, что не зря именно сеть медресе, открытых по приказу Низам аль-Мулька получили название «Низамийа». В этих медресе наряду с религиозными науками, преподавались экономика, философия, математика, астрономия, история, логика, риторика, ораторское искусство, искусство ведения государственных дел (секретариат). Ссылаясь на египетского богослова и зак... ... middle of paper ... ...л высокую оценку специалистов, как средневековья, так и современности. Этот гений арабской филологии не мог остаться в тени. Низам аль-Мульк пригласил его преподавателем в багдадскую Низамийу, Х. Табризи по сведениям Якута аль-Хамави преподавал там литературу и был библиотекарем. Язбердиев в своей статье «Везирь великих сельджукских султанов Низам ал-Мульк и созданные им библиотеки», ссылаясь на статью «Четыре великие библиотеки средневекового Багдада» Маккенсена Р.С. (Mackensen, R. S. (July 11, 1939). Four Great Libraries of Medieval Baghdad, Library Quarterly, USA: University of Chicago Press). упоминает имя Абу Юсупа Исфараини, и пишет, что он «работал в этом учреждении мударрисом и библиотекарем». К сожалению, пока эту статью нам не удалось найти. Однако источники, которые доступны нам четко указывают на то, что Табризи был библиотекарем в багдадской Низамиййе.
Historically, Russia has always been a country of perplexing dualities. The reality of Dual Russia, the separation of the official culture from that of the common people, persisted after the Revolution of 1917 and the Civil War. The Czarist Russia was at once modernized and backward: St. Petersburg and Moscow stood as the highly developed industrial centers of the country and two of the capitals of Europe, yet the overwhelming majority of the population were subsistent farms who lived on mir; French was the official language and the elites were highly literate, yet 82% of the populati...
Tensions in Russia in the Early 1900 In the early 1900, Russia faced various kinds of problems in terms of society and politics. Although the largest country in the world, Russia could only offer 5% of its land for farming. The rest was useless due to the extremely low temperatures throughout the year. The problem with land meant that peasants did not produce a sufficient amount of food, consequently resulting famine all over the country.
With the coinciding of a revolution on the brink of eruption and the impacts of the First World War beginning to take hold of Russia, considered analysis of the factors that may have contributed to the fall of the Romanov Dynasty is imperative, as a combination of several factors were evidently lethal. With the final collapse of the 300 year old Romanov Dynasty in 1917, as well as the fall of Nicholas II, a key reality was apparent; the impact that WWI had on autocratic obliteration was undeniable. However, reflection of Russia’s critical decisions prior is essential in the assessment of the cause of the fall of the Romanov Dynasty.
Through this we are able to see the importance of Vladimir’s transition to Christianity because the writers of the Chronicle portray the act of moving from paganism to Christianity as one of divine will rather than desires of the flesh. This justification of conversion allows the reader to understand the importance of statewide adaptation in the world of Christian Slavs. To further our understanding of the deep rooted awe felt towards Vladimir’s Christianization of Russia, the Chronicle allows the reader specific examples of divine miracles which illustrate the admiration Slavs felt towards the conversion of Russia. When Vladimir attacks the Greek city of Kherson, he and his armies are unsuccessful and become exhausted by the constant charge on the cities walls. Relief finally comes in the form of a man set on aiding the ever-persistent Vladimir.
When recognised as being an ageing superpower by Alexander II it was inevitable that some sort of change would take place in Russia in the hope of modernisation. We can see that the changes were mostly political and economical. During Alexander III’s reign we can see that the changes were suppressive although it ultimately led to further change in the form of revolution in the future.
Rasputin’s loyalty to the czar and his family made him “immune” to the attempts of exile from Russia (DISCovering). Aleksey Nickolayevich was a hemophiliac (Rasputin). On one certain occasion, doctors were called in to check on the young heir. After nothing seemed to help, “Grigory Rasputin, who was reported to have miraculous powers of faith healing, was brought to Alexandra” (Massie 259). Rasputin didn’t cure Aleksey of hemophilia, but his ability to control the symptoms was “indisputable” (Fuhrmann 26). “In December 1916, a group of conservative aristocrats laced Rasputin’s wine with potassium cyanide at a soiree in the Yousoupov Palace” (DISCovering). The poison wasn’t strong enough to kill Rasputin. He was shot once, “lurched” at his attackers and they shot him again (DISCovering).
1) The pre-revolutionary history of Russia. For the Russians it was traditional view itself as a nation with a special mission. It started since the late Middle Ages. After the destruction of Byzantium, Russia was the only independent country with a dominant Orthodox faith. The religious factor has led to the fact that in spreading the true fait...
The 19th century was a highly turbulent time in Russia’s history. Following the defeat of Napoleonic France, Western ideas and philosophy crept into Russian culture. As a result, Russian nobles split into two schools of thought. Slavophiles valued Russia’s traditional Orthodox Church, and did not want to Westernize and secede to the supposed superiority of Western culture. Conversely, Westernizers were a group of nobles who were against the traditional Russian values, and believed that the only way forward was to look to Europe. The Westernizers and the Slavophiles disagreed on a deep level about the direction Russia needed to take in the future. Russian thinkers were split between the Westernizer and the Slavophile point of view; both sides disagreed about the true nature of the country as well as its relation with the West.
The transformation of individuals also included citizens’ desire to become more cultured. Many Soviet citizens characterized peasants, those who were not yet part of the transformation, as “economical[ly] and cultural[y] backwards” (70); thus, the people wanted to be more cultured to distinguish themselves from the lower-class. Such things as brushing teeth, table manners, and public behavior allowed them to be distinguished (80). Fitzpatrick says on page 80, “Newspapers and journals carried regular accounts of successes in mastering the first level of culture, […] these should not always be taken literally.” Fitzpatrick again emphasizes that much of the reports during this period were propaganda.
...V. The Reign of Rasputin: An Empire's Collapse. Memoirs of M. V. Rodzianko. Trans. Catherine Zvegintzoff. Gulf Breeze, FL: Academic International, 1973. Print.
Russia is generally apportioned the benefit of having introduced a political phenomenon that basically provided an alternative for capitalism; communism. Since this concept was only set in motion at the turn of the 20th century, we can therefore deduce that, to a large extent, Russia is, to most people, synonymous with leaders such as Lenin, Stalin, Khrushchev, and Gorbachev. This supposition is entirely based on the premise that the Russian revolution of 1914 inherently altered the socio-cultural and socio-political direction of the nation, bringing into birth a never before envisioned era where Russia was not ruled by the Tsars, but by simple men; men who spoke to and articulated the needs of the masses. To this extent, communism, therefore, is largely misconceived as having been the fulcrum of Russia’s civilization. Much of this misconception , as signaled earlier, is based on the growth and progression of the Russian society in the years after the revolution until 1990, when the Berlin wall fell, essentially bringing down with it decades of Soviet Union tradition based on communism.
18 Mar. 2014. Кудрявцев, Сергей. " Историко-революционный трагифарс с элементами фантастики." 3500 рецензий. Москва: Печатный двор, n.d. N. pag.
These are some of the many reasons, along with the Romanov family’s inability to lead either troops in modern warfare or the Russian population into a modern industrialised society, that brought about the inevitability of the 1917 Russian revolution and thus, the USSR.
Upon relocating, Anton immediately enrolled into the University of Moscow to pursue a medical degree, but, when compelled to support both himself and his family, he began to find opportunities to write humorous and satirical jokes as well as anecdotal articles and sketches for number of the magazines and news periodicals that existed in Moscow. Taking whatever task ...
Kaun, Alexander. "Maxim Gorky and the Bolsheviks." Slavonic & East European Review Vol. 9.26 (1930): 432-448. Print.