The contamination with mycotoxins in foods and feeds around the world have shown to be an expressive impasse. (Hussein and Brasel, 2001). It was estimated by FAO that mycotoxins have contaminated 25% of the global's food crops, causing considerable problems in the economic aspect. (Aidoo, 2011). These toxins are compounds that many sorts of fungus produce (EFSA, 2013) and have negative impacts on humans, animals and crops, that according to Hussein and Brasel (2001), result in diseases and losses in the economy. The commonly access of most mycotoxins to food and animal feed is through contamination of cereals, plant material and other crops. (Aidoo, 2011). The fungus proliferation and production of mycotoxins happen under propitious environmental conditions, for instance, convenient moisture and temperature. (EFSA, 2013). According to Aidoo (2011), the number of known mycotoxins exceeds 400, among them approximately 30 have received great concern. The most relevant agro-economic mycotoxins are ergot alkaloids, fumonisins, aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, zearalenone, and tremorgenic toxins. (Hussein and Brasel, 2001). The most generally associated with cereals are deoxynivalenol, aflatoxins, fumonisins, zearalenone and ochratoxins (Milani and Maleki, 2014). This essay aims to expose the features of the mycotoxins, describe some of the main ones, explain the agricultural relevance and the measures to control them. First described in 1988, fumonisins are synthesized by the process of amino acid alanine condensation into an acetate-derived precursor. They are produced by different Fusarium species, especially Fusarium verticillioides, Fusarium proliferatum, and Fusarium nygamai. The most significant species in the economic ... ... middle of paper ... ...e fact that efforts have been made worldwide to develop manners of controlling these toxins, the implementation of practical measures remain inadequate. (Hussein and Brasel, 2001). The development of identification and quantification analytical processes of these toxins in an agricultural background have been receiving noteworthy research. Such effort is necessary due to the complexity of the chemical and the substrate diversity. The effectiveness of the measures in the control of these toxins depends on a combination of factors such as 'good agricultural practice, carefully controlled storage and surveillance at every stage from field to plate and production of feeding stuff'. (Aidoo, 2011). Achieving an excellency on the control of mycotoxins will allow crop producers to guarantee safety, quality and high productive levels without compromising the consumers health.
Casullo De Ara 'Ujo, H. W., Fukushima, K. and Takaki, G. M. C. 2010. Prodigiosin production by Serratia marcescens UCP 1549 using renewable-resources as a low cost substrate. Molecules, 15 (10), p. 6931-6940.
Botulinum toxin has a complex chemical composition and is found in various surprising locations. The toxin is derived from Clostridium botulinum, and according to P.K. and Anjana Nigam, the authors of the Indian Journal of Dermatology, it is “an anaerobic, gram-positive, spore-forming rod commonly found on plants, in soil, water and the intestinal tracts of animals.” H. Bradford Hawley M.D., the editor of Magill’s Medical Guide, states that these bacteria are vastly immune to high temperatures and can persevere through numerous methods used to eradicate it and to get rid of toxins for secure consumption of food and water. Since the bacteria can be found in such a diverse variety of commodities, which all can be ingested by humans, it is critical to find a way to disinfect our soil, meat, and produce against C. botulinum.
Botulism is a rare but very serious paralytic illness that is caused by the botulinum toxin that is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. C. botulinum is a gram positive, anaerobic, spore forming bacterium that is naturally occurring in soil. Botulism dates back to the eighteenth century when the first food borne botulism was documented. During this time many people were doing home fermented sausages and this was thought to be the cause of botulism. This is how the toxin got its name since “Botulism” in Latin comes from “botulus” which means sausage. E. van Ermengen was the first to discover the microbe in 1897 after there was a food borne outbreak in Ellezelles, Belgium. To date there are six forms of botulism but only two forms were known until the twentieth century which were food borne and wound botulism. The first type of botulism is food borne which is a result of ingesting food that contains the pre-form toxin. Some foods that this typically occurs in are home canned vegetables, cured pork and ham and smoked or raw fish. Wound botulism is the result of C. botulinum spores growing in a contaminated wound with in vivo production. Most people that get wound botulism usually have deep and contained avascular areas and many people also had compound fractures. Wound botulism is on the rise in the U.S. because of the use of illicit drugs, “the majority were linked to injectable drug use, particularly with so-called ‘black tar heroin’ and others with nasal or sinus lesions due to chronic cocaine sniffing.” (CDC website) Another form of botulism is infant botulism. This is caused from the endogenous production of toxin germinating spores of C. botulinum in the intestines of the infants. Also feeding an infant...
The most common route of exposure to mycotoxins is ingestion, but it may also involve dermal, respiratory, and parenteral routes, the last being associated with drug abuse (Peraica and Domijan, 2001). In general, animals are directly exposed to mycotoxins through the consumption of mouldy feedstuffs, eating contaminated foods, skin contact with mould infected substrates and inhalation of spore-borne toxins (Bennett and Klich, 2003a). Human exposure to mycotoxins may result from consumption of plant-derived foods that are contaminated with toxins, the carry-over of mycotoxins and their metabolites in animal products such as meat and eggs (Veldman, 2004) or exposure to air and dust containing toxins (Jarvis, 2002). Most importantly, the presence of potentially toxigenic fungi does not imply the presence of mycotoxins, nor does the finding of mycotoxins prove that a particular species is, or was, present. Toxin production is dependent on substrates, nutrient levels, moisture, pH, and temperature (Murtoniemi et al.,
More precisely DON is classified as type-B trichothecene [20]. It is produced by Fusarium culmorum and F. graminearum [(Maresca, 2013). DON contamination is observed worldwide, within cereal crops such as wheat, maize or barley being most frequently affected (Richard, 2007). Furthermore, silage contamination is regularly observed (Tangni et al., 2013). Cold and wet weather conditions favour DON production (Lindblad et al., 2012) and it was found that the timing of the rainfall is more influential than the amount of precipitation (Mesterházy, 2002). In animal husbandry, DON, also known as vomitoxin, is primarily known for causing feed refusal and emesis in pigs (Pestka, 2007). This mycotoxin also alters the immune response and the intestinal functions (Pestka, 2007). DON may be produced together with two acetylated derivatives, 3-AcDON and 15-AcDON, that have differential toxicity on pig intestine (Behrens et al., 2015). Poultry are not as sensitive to DON and feed refusal is only observed at very high concentrations (16–20 mg/kg feed) (Whitlow and Hagler, 2002). Ruminants are the least sensitive animal species to DON, a fact that is attributed to the capacity of rumen microflora to detoxify this mycotoxin (Fink-Gremmels,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) is the bacterium that causes the disease tuberculosis (TB). A distinctive characteristic of the genus Mycobacteria is the presence of a thick lipid-rich cell wall and resistance to the decolourization step of the gram stain (being acid-fast). The acid-fast characteristic of the M. tuberculosis is the result of a waxy, lipid-rich cell wall. The cell envelope of the tubercle bacilli contains a layer beyond the peptidoglycan which is exceptionally rich in lipids, glycolipids and polysaccharides. The bacterium is gram positive bacillus which is an obligate aerobe, is non-motile, a non-endospore forming and is non-capsulated. The microscopic appearance of M. tuberculosis is seen as straight, slightly curved rods approximately 3 x 0.3µm in size. In liquid culture media, the bacteria usually grow as twisted rope-like pellets known as ‘serpentine cords’. M. tuberculosis is capable of growing on a wide range of enriched culture media such as Lowenstein-Jensen medium or Middlebrook medium. The optimum growth temperature of the pathogenic organsim is 35-37°C and unlike most other mycobacteria, it cannot grow at a temperature of 25°C or 41°C. M. tuberculosis is an airborne pathogen that is transmitted from person to person, usually infecting the respiratory tract through inhalation (Greenwood, et al., 2012).
Clostridium botulinum has a rich history dating back to 19th century Europe where it first contaminated sausages, causing outbreaks of foodborne botulism. (1-3) In fact, the term botulism is derived from the Latin term botulus, meaning sausage. (1,3) Microbiologist Emile Pierre Marie van Ermengem first described the etiologic agent in 1897, (1-3) following isolation of the anaerobic bacillus from ham and splenic tissue obtained upon autopsy. (2,3) Although first referred to as Bacillus botulinus, it was eventually renamed Clostridium botulinum to distinguish it from the aerobic spore-forming genus Bacillus. (2) Importantly, the presence of a toxin was noted at this time, as cell-free extracts were capable of causing disease. (1,2) By 1943 and 1976, wound botulism and infant botulism were also respectively described. (1)
Native peoples have made great strides to become equal to other Canadian citizens, but by no means does this mean their plights are no longer important or valid. Too many Native children start drinking at young ages, too many Native girls sell themselves, and too many Native peoples deal with prescription addictions. “In some [native] communities, it’s as high as 75 per cent. Of the thousands who need treatment, she said, less than 10 per cent are getting help.” (Paperny) Oxycotin, the main drug used by the native peoples, has harsh and sometime deadly effects, but due to the dangerous, depressive and aggressive environment that so many reserves deal with, Oxycontin has become the high so many native peoples believe they need. This highly addictive drug though destroys lives further. “On Feb. 6, Matawa First Nations, a tribal council of nine Northern Ontario First Nations, reported that almost 2,000 people have an Opioid addiction in their communities.” (Windspeaker) These 2,000 people need help, and the way in which the government has chosen to deal with this is by cutting Oxycontin from the Ontario health care plan to replace it with OxyNEO. Explaining the history behind this drug addiction and the environment it thrives in, the issues withdrawal will cause and the symptoms of withdrawal, will help people conclude for themselves whether OxyNEO is a positive solution, or we need something else.
For approximately three-thousand years, smallpox has ravaged and plagued the four corners of the globe. In fact, in the 17 th and 18 th centuries, it was claimed to be the most infectious disease in the West, with an astounding 90% mortality rate in America. It wasn't until 1796, with English surgeon Edward Jenner's smallpox vaccination, that the world saw relief from this devastating virus. However, even with this inoculation in use, the world continued to witness death from both the virus and the vaccine. In the year 1966, it was estimated that 10-15 million infected citizens world wide had passed away from smallpox that year alone ( “History” 12). As a result of these devastating numbers, in the following year, 1967, the World Health Organization (W.H.O.) created a program to eradicate the smallpox virus. Ten years later, in 1977, the estimated 10-15 million cases had dwindled down to one; a man in Somalia. Three years later, W.H.O. officially announced that smallpox had been eradicated, leaving the only remaining virus cultures stored and guarded in laboratories in Russia and the United States. Inoculations ceased, smallpox epidemics were non-existent, and the virus was no longer a concern. In order to ensure complete eradication of this deadly virus, the W.H.O. insisted that the remaining smallpox cultures be destroyed by 1999 ( “Smallpox Eradication” 2). However, despite the W.H.O.'s recommendation, the remaining cultures continue to be contained and protected to this day, five years after the suggested date of elimination.
Did you know that pesticides have been used since the 1600s? Yes in the 1600s the romans burned sulfur to kill insects and they used salts to control weeds. The romans also used honey and arsenic to control ants. The ancient romans crushed the petals of the pyrethrum and they used ants to to eat undesirable insects. By World War II, only thirty pesticides existed(During the late 19th century, farmers were using copper acetoarsenite, calcium arsenate, nicotine sulfate, and sulfur to control insect pests in crops. Pesticides are products that are intended to prevent, destroy, repel, or to mitigate any pest. Pesticide use emerged after World War II, when DDT, BHC, Aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, and 2, 4-D was introduced. After these were introduced, people began abusing these pesticides and the pests became genetically resistant to pesticides. When this happened, non-target plants and animals were harmed and pesticide residues appeared in unexpected places. Researchers during the 1960s, began developing a different approach towards pest control. This was called integrated pest management (IPM). There are ups and downs to pesticides. When we didn’t have pesticides, there was bug spots on the produce,and blemishes. Most people won’t buy the produce if it has these kind of disorders. After pesticides were invented, we didn’t have these sort of problems, therefore sales went up.
Anthrax is a very real and dangerous threat to all people who come in contact with it. The bacterial infection is caused by the bacteriaium Bacillus anthracis. Anthrax is divided into three categories all are contracted in different ways. The first type is called Cutaneous Anthrax; this is where anthrax spores make contact with the skin. If there is a cut or a lesion then a person can be infected. Cutaneous Anthrax is the most common way to get anthrax, but is also the least lethal. The second type of anthrax is called Pulmonary Anthrax this is where a person inhales the spores of anthrax directly into the lungs. If this type of anthrax is left untreated it could lead to death. The third type of anthrax is called Gastrointestinal Anthrax, this form results from eating meat from animals that have been infected with the anthrax bacteria. This causes the intestinal tract to become infected and this from is almost always fatal. This particular mode of anthrax has never been seen in the United States.
Over the years, meat eating has grown dramatically in many countries. Demand for meat production increased at a fearsome speed, which led to producers using pesticides and fertilizers on their crop. Because of our exponential population we could not begin to feed the population of the world without them. Farmers will need to increase the amount the chemicals used on their crops and animals to accelerate production process i...
To help keep crops from being destroyed, conventional farmers use many methods such as pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides. Nearly 1 billion pounds of these chemicals are used every year (“pesticides”). Because of this excessive use, some scientists express concern that using artificial chemicals in the farming process could produce unhealthy crops. People who ate it over a long period of time could suffer from degraded health and stunted growth (“Organic Foods”). For example, in 1989, the EPA banned the use of Alar which was a chemical used to ripen apples (“Farming, Organics”). This chemical proved to be carcinogenic after causing tumors in mice after several laboratory tests (“Organic Food”). As a result of these findings there was a dramatic increase of the sales for organic food (“Organic Food”). Another study found that Atrazine (one of the most widely used herbicides in the United States) has the potential of being carcinogenic and reducing sperm counts in males (“Organic Food”). This was further proven when evidence was found that chemicals u...
As time has progressed, there has always been an overarching need for high amounts of crop production throughout the world. With the rapid rate of population growth, the need for crops and other sources of nutrients is only increasing. In order to meet these high demands and increase yields, farmers and other agriculturalists have started implementing the use of pesticides. These chemical mixtures are being used in order to prevent, destroy, repel or mitigate any pests from destroying growing crops. However, using pesticides on crops can create massive amounts of pollution, negatively affect an individual’s health, and can spark biodiversity loss within an ecosystem. According to Michael C.R. Alavanja, “Over 1 billion pounds of pesticides are used within the United States (US) each year and approximately 5.6 billion pounds are used worldwide”. With all this in mind, it is clear that pesticides should not be made available to farmers and agriculturalists, and should
The new chemicals which are produced to kill these strong pests and weeds may be more harmful to other plants and remove nutrients within the soil, in turn reducing the yield of agricultural crops. The benefits of these characteristics are seen in Argentina according to Pelletier (2010) as they use glyphosphate resistant soybean which allowed the comeback of this crop, as the soil was severely damaged from monoculture (The cultivation of a single crop in a defined area).... ... middle of paper ... ...