Origins leading to ventricular septal defect pathology are limited to what is currently known about normal mechanisms of cardiac ventricular septation: the transformation of the single common ventricular peristaltic pump, into a two ventricle system, complete with one-way valves, that exhibit synchronous contraction (Penny & Vick, 2011, p. 1103).
DEVELOPMENT
The septum consists of both superior membranous and inferior muscular components (Contreras-Ramos et al., 2008). Early in embryonic cardiac development, blood flows from the primordial atria through the left and right atrioventricular canals into what is known as the common ventricle. The blood then exits the heart through the truncus arteriosus— an embryological arterial trunk originally stemming from the common ventricle that later divides into the aorta and pulmonary trunk. At the end of the fourth week of gestation, the thick, muscular ventricular septum grows superiorly from the floor of the common ventricle at the midline, partially separating this area into left and right ventricles (De La Cruz & Moreno-Rodriguez, 1998). At this point, an opening, termed the interventricular foramen, still remains between the newly formed muscular ventricular septum and the endocardial cushions—a pair of thickened, elevated tissue sections in the embryonic atrioventricular canal of the heart. During week five of gestation, two ridges of tissue, conotruncal ridges (i.e.- truncoconal swellings) emerge on the sides of the truncus arteriosus. These ridges grow towards one another in a spiral, funnel-shaped fashion and form the aorticopulmonary septum, which divides the truncus arteriosis into the aorta and pulmonary trunk. As the conotruncal ridges grow and fuse to form the aorticopulmon...
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...cond issue is pulmonary hypertension caused by an abnormal increase in right ventricular pressure and volume.
The underlying genetic factors causing VSD have been investigated. The linkge of specific genetic mutations with ventricular septal defecThough the signal transduction pathways are largely unknown, specific types of mutations in transcription factors
Other pathologies can lead to the formation of a VSD as well. Tetrology of Fallot and univentricular atrioventricular connection have been listed as pathologies causing VSDs. Cardiac lesions such as transposition of the great arteries, congenitally corrected transposition, and aortic coarctation have also been listed as possible causes (Penny &, Vick, 2011).
There are also rare cases when a VSD case is not caused by congenital malformation, but instead is the result of outside trauma (Sugiyama et al., 2011)
First and foremost, Eisenmenger syndrome was initially described in 1897 when German physician, Victor Eisenmenger, reported on a patient with symptoms of dyspnea and cyanosis from infancy that subsequently developed heart failure (Connolly, 2014). The postmortem description was revealed and a ventricular septal defect was discovered (El-Chami et al., 2014a). With that being said, this had been the first time that the link between a large congenital cardiac shunt defect and the development of pulmonary hypertension had ever been noted (El-Chami et al., 2014b). The normal heart has four chambers. The two upper chambers are separated from each other by the atrial septum (NORD, 2014a). The two lower chambers are known as ventricles and are separated from each other by the ventricular septum (NORD, 2014b).
During pregnancy an echocardiogram of the fetus can be done to produce images of the heart by sending ultrasonic sound waves to the vital organ. These sound waves create an image for the physician to analyze the babies heart function, structure sizes, and blood flow. A positive diagnosis before birth has shown to improve chances of survival, and will allow for appropriate care to be readily available at birth. If a baby is born without being diagnosed with the heart defect, some symptoms previous noted such as low oxygen levels can be suggestive of hypoplastic left heart syndrome. The baby may not display any symptoms or signs for hours after birth because of the openings allowing for blood to be pumped to the rest of the body. However, listening to the babies heart can revel a murmur indicating an irregular flow of blood in the heart. If a murmur is heard, or signs of the defect are observed, diagnostic tests will be ordered and performed. An echocardiogram is still the go-to test once the baby is born to evaluate the heart. The echocardiogram will diagnose the newborn, by revealing the underdeveloped left ventricle, mitral and aortic valve, and the ascending aorta commonly seen in
There are four different categories of treatment: lifestyle changes, surgical procedures, non-surgical procedures, and medications. Lifestyle changes include having a healthy diet; increasing physical activity; eliminating cigarettes, alcoholic beverages, and illicit drugs; and getting enough rest and sleep; losing excess weight. These lifestyle changes are to lower the patient’s blood pressure, cholesterol, and reducing any other future medical conditions. There are also surgical options to help cure, prevent, or control cardiomyopathy. Surgical method include a septal myectomy, surgically implanted devices, and a heart transplant. A septal myectomy is used to specifically treat hypertrophy cardiomyopathy which is where the heart muscle cells enlarge and cause the walls of the ventricles to thicken. The thickening of the walls may not affect the size of the ventricles but instead may affect the blood flow out of the ventricle. Usually along with the ventricles swelling, the septum in between the ventricles can become enlarged and block the blood flow causing a heart attack. When medication is not working well to treat hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, a surgeon will open the chest cavity and remove part of the septum that is blocking blood flow. Surgically implanted devices include a pacemaker, a cardiac resynchronization therapy device, a left ventricular assist device, and an implantable
This syndrome increase blood flow causes the heart to pump blood to the lungs at an increasing rate and destroys the blood vessels in the lungs. Several Heart defects that causes disorder is ventricular septal defect (VSD), atrial septal defect (ASD), Patent ductus arteriosus (PDS), and Atrioventricular canal defect (ACD) (Mayo Clinic,2016) This hole usually causes symptoms that include blue or gray skin pigments, shortness of breath, extreme fatigue, chest pains, racing or skipped heart beats, and dizziness. Other symptoms include coughing up blood, swelling in the abdominal region, and numb and/or enlarged fingers and toes. Some of the way ER syndrome can be diagnosed are Chest X-ray are used for heart and pulmonary artery enlargement. Electrocardiogram (ECG) electrical activity of the heart that help test for heart defect that are caused by ES, Echocardiogram is normally used for listing to sound of the heart during, but during ER testing it helps to see if the patient have a heart defect, Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used to take images of blood vessels and lungs and blood test is use to check blood count, which ES would make it
According to Batshaw, Roizen, and Lotrecchiano (2013), patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) is “the persistence of a fetal passage permitting blood to bypass the lungs” (p. 745). This is an inherited heart condition in which the ductus, a small pathway between the pulmonary and the aortic, valves remain open. This cardiovascular problem usually occurs in low birth weight infants. The blood vessels usually naturally closes after birth (Batshaw et al., 2013, p. 96). It becomes atypical if it remains open after the neonatal period. The structure usually closes in typical developing newborns around the initial 24 hours, and anatomical closure is supposed to follow several weeks later (Stanford Children’s Health, 2015). At the point when the ductus arteriosus stays open, the blood from the oxygen-rich aorta blends with the oxygen-poor pulmonary artery causing the higher chance of blood pressure in the lung pathways (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2011). Certain children who have patent ductus arteriosus may be given medication, relying upon the circumstance to standardize the blood and oxygen levels until surgery is performed. Doctor can treat this condition by providing pharmaceutical medicine, catheter-based procedures, and surgery (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2011).
Tetralogy of Fallot is a congenital heart disease which involves four different heart defects in one. The four different heart defects are a large ventricular septal defect (VSD), Pulmonary Stenosis, Right ventricular hypertrophy, and an overriding aorta. These congenital defects change the normal flow of blood thro...
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is an inherited disease that affects the cardiac muscle of the heart, causing the walls of the heart to thicken and become stiff. [1] On a cellular level, the sarcomere increase in size. As a result, the cardiac muscles become abnormally thick, making it difficult for the cells to contract and the heart to pump. A genetic mutation causes the myocytes to form chaotic intersecting bundles. A pathognomonic abnormality called myocardial fiber disarray. [2,12] How the hypertrophy is distributed throughout the heart is varied. Though, in most cases, the left ventricle is always affected. [3] The heart muscle can thicken in four different patterns. The most common being asymmetrical septal hypertrophy without obstruction. Here the intraventricular septum becomes thick, but the mitral valve is not affected. Asymmetrical septal hypertrophy with obstruction causes the mitral valve to touch the septal wall during contraction. (Left ventricle outflow tract obstruction.) The obstruction of the mitral valve allows for blood to slowly flow from the left ventricle back into the left atrium (Mitral regurgitation). Symmetrical hypertrophy is the thickening of the entire left ven...
The second beat is the semilunar valve opening to allow blood into the aorta or pulmonary trunk. The cardiac cycle is composed of five stages. These stages are atrial systole, early ventricular systole, late ventricular systole, early ventricular diastole, and late ventricular diastole. In order for atrial systole to occur, the blood that has been flowing between the atrium and ventricle via the opened atrioventricular valves must be deposited into the ventricles. The SA node is responsible for the contraction of the atrial myocardium.
The heart serves as a powerful function in the human body through two main jobs. It pumps oxygen-rich blood throughout the body and “blood vessels called coronary arteries that carry oxygenated blood straight into the heart muscle” (Katzenstein and Pinã, 2). There are four chambers and valves inside the heart that “help regulate the flow of blood as it travels through the heart’s chambers and out to the lungs and body” (Katzenstein Pinã, 2). Within the heart there is the upper chamber known as the atrium (atria) and the lower chamber known as the ventricles. “The atrium receive blood from the lu...
Heart valve defects include narrowing of the valves or complete closure that stops forward blood flow. Some valves do not close properly allowing blood to leak backwards. Defects in the walls between the atria and ventricles of the heart may allow abnormal mixing of oxygenated and un-oxygenated blood between the left side and the right side of the heart. Heart muscles defects often lead to heart failure due to the muscle not working properly. The vital signs that detects a congenital birth defect is a pulse oximeter and blood pressure.
Most often the disease starts in the left ventricle, and then often spreads to both the atrium and right ventricle as well. Usually there will also be mitral and tricuspid regurgitation, due to the dilation of the annuli. This regurgitation will continue to make problems worse by adding excessive volume and pressure to the atria, which is what then causes them to dilate. Once the atria become dilated it often leads to atrial fibrillation. As the volume load increases the ventricles become more dilated and over time the myocytes become weakened and cannot contract as they should. As you might have guessed with the progressive myocyte degeneration, there is a reduction in cardiac output which then may present as signs of heart failure (Lily).
The heart is two sided and has four chambers and is mostly made up of muscle. The heart’s muscles are different from other muscles in the body because the heart’s muscles cannot become tired, so the muscle is always expanding and contacting. The heart usually beats between 60 and 100 beats per minute. In the right side of the heart, there is low pressure and its job is to send red blood cells. Blood enters the right heart through a chamber which is called right atrium. The right atrium is another word for entry room. Since the atrium is located above the right ventricle, a mixture of gravity and a squeeze pushes tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. The tricuspid is made up of three things that allow blood to travel from top to bottom in the heart but closes to prevent the blood from backing up in the right atrium.
Cardiofaciocutaneous syndrome may be generated through various genetic mutations. As mentioned before, there are four genes that can cause this condition to be brought about in an individual. The most frequent mutation of these is the BRAF gene, because it is responsible for approximately 75 to 80 percent of each case of the syndrome. The two genes, MEK1 and MEK2, are very much alike and together are the result of 10 to 15 percent of ...
Cardiovascular System: He does not experience any chest pain or palpitation. He does not have dyspnea or leg swelling.
The human heart is one, if not the most, vital organ in the human body. The heart pumps blood through the circulatory system. It is what provides the body with oxygen and nutrients. Of course, without this important, muscular, organ there would be no way to survive. “Everyday your heart beats about 100,000 times, sending 2,000 gallons of blood surging through your body. Although it is no bigger than your fist, your heart has a mighty job of keeping blood flowing through 60,000 miles of blood vessels that feed your organs and tissues” (Watson n.pag.). Any type of damage or restriction to the heart or its valves can reduce pumping. Cardiovascular diseases are examples that cause damage to the heart and blood vessels. Cardiovascular disease is the most common cause of death globally, accounting for thirty percent of deaths. Since the heart has such an important role in the human body, it is critical that it is functioning and working properly. An important medical test used to observe the heart is called transesophageal echocardiography, also known as TEE.