Tuberculosis or TB is an airborn infection caused by inhaled droplets that contain mycobacterium tuberculosis. When infected, the body will initiate a cell-mediated hypersensitivity response which leads to formation of lesion or cavity and positive reaction to tuberculin skin test (Kaufman, 2011). People who have been infected with mycobacteria will have a positive skin test, but only ones who have active TB will show signs and symtoms. Basic signs and symptoms include low grade fever, cough with hemoptysis, and tachypnea. They may also show pleuristic chest pain, dyspnea, progressive weight loss, fatigue and malaise (Porth, 2011).
Signs and Symptoms of Active Tuberculosis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MT) is a slender, rod-shaped, aerobic bacillus which causes tuberculosis. Tuberculosis (TB) is an airborn infection which is transmitted via inhaling droplet nuclei circulating in the air. These droplets are expelled from the respiratory secretion of people who have active TB through coughing, sneezing, and talking (Porth, 2011). Some bacilli stay in the upper airway and are swept out by mucus-secreting goblet cells and cilia on the surface of the airway. Others will escape from this protective mechanism to travel and settle down at alveoli (Porth, 2011). Local inflammatory reaction occurs and macrophages are cells that act as next line defense mechanism to fight with mycobacteria. First they engulf micobacteria, try to reduce their strength and ability, and kill them. In the same way they send antigen to helper T lymphocytes to initiate a cell-mediated immune response (Knechel, 2009). The infected macrophages will send produced cytokines and enzymes to breakdown mycobacteria’s protein. It is the released cytokines that attract T ly...
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...d lymphokines. Lymphokines will attract other inflammatory cells into the site. This response generally peaks in 48 hours after PPD injection. Redness at the injection site and induration resulting from cellular infiltration represent the immune response to the skin test (Nayak, 2012).
Conclusion
TB is an airborn infection that affects primary to the lung. Not all infected person show sign and symptoms. Only peole who have active TB show signs and symtoms such as low grade fever, cough with hemoptysis, tachypnea, pleuristic chest pain, dyspnea, progressive weight loss, fatigue and malaise. PPD skin test is a way to detect mycobacteria infection. A positive PPD skin test is the result of a specific immune response against the antigen introduced into the skin of a person who has been exposed to mycobacteria either from previous infected with TB or from receiving BCG.
The immunologic events that are happening at the local level during Carlton's acute inflammatory response would be:
“Immune Response: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia.” National Library of Medicine - National Institutes of Health. Web. 18 Dec. 2011. .
Capriotti & Frizzell (2016) explain that sepsis is often seen in those who have a weak immune system. These individuals are at an increased risk of developing sepsis from microorganisms that a healthy immune system would normally fight off (Capriotti et al. 2016). The elderly, infants, and immunosuppressed patients are the most at risk for developing the condition (Capriotti et al. 2016). Sepsis can be caused by any microbe, but is most often caused by bacteria (Capriotti et al. 2016). Since sepsis has such a broad reach and can develop as a secondary infection after an initial injury or illness, Capriotti & Frizzell (2016) further explain the di...
One of the first steps to treating Tuberculosis is identifying which form has developed in the body. The two forms that could progress in the body are latent Tuberculosis infection and active Tuberculosis infection (CDC, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports). Latent Tuberculosis is the dormant form of the bacteria, meaning that it is inactive and doesn?t cause an infectious reaction in the body. Even if the latent form enters the body, treatment should be sought (CDC, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports). Latent Tuberculosis can become active Tuberculosis easily though, especially if the immune system is compromised by another infection, like HIV (CDC, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports). Active Tuberculosis infects the body immediately. Symptoms show in the body meaning the bacteria is effecting the cells of the body. Identifying the form is important because treatment is dependent upon it. Testing for TB involves a skin test, usually within seven work-days of contact with the bacteria. Without knowing what is in the body, the drugs won?t be as effective and might even cause drug-resistance.
TB is a disease that can cause a serious illness and can damage a person's
Hepatitis B is a DNA viral infection that causes damage and inflammation to the liver. It was first discovered in 1965 by Dr. Baruch Blumberg. The HBV virus is very contagious and is even thought to be the most serious form of viral hepatitis and the most common viral infection on Earth. “HBV is 100 times more infectious than HIV.” (Green, 2002, pg. 7) The virus can survive for about one week outside the body on a dry surface. According to Green (2002, pg. 7), “One in twenty Americans has been infected with the virus at some point in their lives.” Between the ages of 15-39 is when 75% of new HBV infections occur, according to Green (2002, pg.8).
Chronic HBV is developed when HBV infection dose not result in immunization and is defined as existence of HbsAG in the body for more than six months [1]. Progression from acute HBV to chronic HBV is highly influenced by the age at infection and is a common state for those infected at...
Tuberculosis is transmitted from person to person through airborne droplets, when a person that is infected with TB coughs, sneezes, talks, and/or sings letting tiny droplet to be released into the air(Bare, Smeltzer, Hinkle, and Cheever, 2008). TB cannot be spread through touching inanimate objects, food, or drinks (Bare et al. 2008). The person must be in the same area an affected individual is in and inspirate the droplets to be affected. Once the bacillus is inspired into the lungs, the bacilli start to multiply causing lung inflammation also known as nonspecific pneumontis (Huether et al. 2008). To cause an immune response the bacilli will travel through lymphatic system and become lodged in the lymph nodes (Huether et al. 2008). Lung inflammation causes the activation of the alveolar macrophages and neutrophils (Huether et al. 2008). Granulomas, new tissue masses of live and dead bacilli, are surrounded by macrophages, which form a protective wall. They then transform into a fibrous tissue mass, the central portion is called a ghon tubercle (Bare et al. 2008). The bacterial then necrotic, forming a cheesy mass, this mass may become calcified and form a collagenous scar (Bare et al. 2008). At this point, the bacteria becomes dormant and there is no further progression of the active disease. The disease can become active again by re-infection or activation of the dormant bacteria (Bare et al. 2008).
Bacterial resistance to antibiotics has presented many problems in our society, including an increased chance of fatality due to infections that could have otherwise been treated with success. Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections, but overexposure to these drugs give the bacteria more opportunities to mutate, forming resistant strains. Through natural selection, those few mutated bacteria are able to survive treatments of antibiotics and then pass on their genes to other bacterial cells through lateral gene transfer (Zhaxybayeva, 2011). Once resistance builds in one patient, it is possible for the strain to be transmitted to others through improper hygiene and failure to isolate patients in hospitals.
Active TB patients are IGRA positive and are symptomatic. The granuloma model: macrophages get infected in non-activated macrophages, necrosis occurs, lymphocytes also activate macrophages. MTB continue to grow and spread. The tubercles bexome liuqified and extracellular bacterial growth ensue, releases liquifed caseous material into the bronchiole causes causing and this can be transmitted tooter people.
A low-grade fever, weight loss, lethargy, night sweats, respiratory congestion, cough, and hemoptysis, are symptoms indicative of Tuberculosis. A positive skin test, abnormal chest x-ray and a positive sputum culture are indicators of Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is transmitted by inhalation of respiratory droplets containing bacteria. This excerpt depicts tuberculosis and its history and prevalence.
Primary tuberculosis is the initial infection of the host, usually being mild and asymptomatic. A healthy person recently infected with the mycobacterium may exhibit flu-like symptoms and has no reason to suspect tuberculosis. Left untreated, the bacilli infect and multiply within pulmonary alveolar macrophages, migrating to the hilar lymph nodes. An immune response is exhibited by the T-helper cells, and inflammation develops at multiple sites. A person may test positive in the tuberculin skin test at this point, and a chest x-ray may shows opacities in the lungs.
Restraining the virus is done in two ways, either by macrophages and phagocytes, or by killer T cells. Macrophages and phagocytes both contain the virus by engulfing and breaking them down with the help of enzymes and lysosomes (Delves). Killer T cells “recognize antigens from the pathogen” and kills the cell by inducing apoptosis, thus “preventing the spread of the infection to neighboring cells” (Mayer, Nyland). Killer T cells also immobilize infected cells by injecting a substance called perforin, which enters the wall of the infected cell and makes a hole, causing the cell to leak fluids and electrolytes and ultimately lead to their death (Menche, et al). Antibodies also play a vital role in the neutralizing viruses. Menche et, al. explains that antibodies can neutralize pathogens by “attach[ing] directly to the surface of a virus… and stop the pathogen from attaching itself to a normal body cell and infecting it”. After successfully obliterating the virus, the T helper cells activate a regulatory T cell by releasing hormones known as lymphokines. These hormones are responsible for regulating the immune system. After a virus is destroyed, regulatory t cells reduce the activity levels of B lymphocytes and other T cells by releasing their own set of lymphokines, called suppressor factors.
5.) Mylonakis, M.D., Eleftherios. PPD skin test. 10 June 2006 MedlinePlus. 26 July 2006 .
Active tuberculosis only develops in about 10% of infected persons, remaining dormant in the rest; although the latent infection may later progress to active disease years later, especially in immune-compromised individuals. 9 Infection by MTBC may involve any organ of the body, but clinical presentation is most common in the lungs (pulmonary TB). General symptoms include fever, loss of appetite, weight loss, fatigue and severe cough with bloody sputum (hemoptysis) which may lead to death if untreated. 10 Mortality rates without treatment are high: in a study of natural history of TB in HIV-negative patients, 70% died within 10 years. 11 Tuberculosis remains a major health problem in the world...