The ability to retrieve words from the lexicon (mental dictionary) to form speech sounds usually requires little conscious effort. However word retrieval which is not carried out accordingly can require greater cognitive effort, affecting speech production (Abrams, 2008). When the recall of words stored in a lexicon is delayed, it is commonly due to tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) states. TOT experiences are temporary and frustrating word recall problems . The ways in which TOT states occur to effect speech h production can be understood by analysing how speech production occurs without TOT and with TOT, what factors enhance TOT situations, what factors inhibit TOT experiences and who is effected by TOT states.
The mental processes which enable speech production to occurs can convey how TOT experiences are triggered. Speech is quite a complex yet partially unconscious process which occurs at a rate of about 2-4 words per second and errors are only made every 1 000th word (Abrams, 2008). It requires the speakers construct a message then encode what they intend to say through two processes. Firstly the target word's semantic properties (word meaning) is determined. Afterwards the brain retrieves information about it's phonology ( word sounds) and this information is sent to speech articulators to form meaningful speech sounds (Field, 2004). According to Interactive activation theories the selection of semantics and the encoding of phonology are processes which operate together. On the other hand Discrete theories believe that speech production requires the selection and retrieval of target semantics occur before phonology is encoded. However, both theories agree TOT states occur when the brain is able to carry out lexical selection of ...
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Over the years, memory have been researched and debated, however there are two theories that have explained extensively and are highly recognised by psychologist in the cognitive field of psychology and scientist alike, on how we process experiences and turn them into memories. These theories include the Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) Multi-store Model of Memory and Baddeley and Hitch (1974) Phonological Loop Model of Memory. This essay aims to compare, contrast and evaluate these models of memory, with supporting evidence and empirical research.
The phonemic restoration phenomenon was first demonstrated by Warren (1970). He conducted an experiment on a number of listeners where he got them to listen to the sentence, “The state governors met with their respective legislatures convening in the capital city”. However, in the word “legislatures” a cough completely masked the medial “s”. Listeners stated hearing the masked phoneme. This showed that when phonemic restoration occurred, listeners were not able to identify the masking sound position in the sentence. What they received was unconsciously interpreted. In other words, the efficiency of phonemic restoration reached the extent that the listeners did not notice it. (Kashino, 2006). Amazingly, the phonemic restoration effect was not observed when “s” was masked with silence!
Ebbinghaus’ work on memory performance contributed astonishing knowledge to the field of scientific psychology and enthralled several succeeding researchers and psychologists (Fuchs, 1997; Slamecka, 1985; Young, 1985). Ebbinghaus was precisely known for conducting memory experiments by using nonsense syllables, and from the results of those experiments, he postulated a unitary view of learning and memory. However, Endel Tulving, provided evidence from Ebbinghaus’ original research that there existed discernible kinds of learning and memory. Prior to his experiment, Tulving received some scathing criticism on his stance regarding Ebbinghaus’ research, but he averred that there was no intention to derogate its concept (Slamecka, 1985; Tulving, 1985). Rather, Tulving’s experiment emanated from Ebbinghaus’ original research to address implications that would supplement knowledge about the psychological science of memory.
In conclusion, Baddeley and Hitch (1974) developed the working memory in response to the multi store model and introduced four mechanisms involved; the phonological loop, visual-spaital sketchpad, episodic buffer and the central executive. The four components are also largely supported by a good wealth of evidence (in Smith, 2007).
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Future research should investigate how long after a list is given participants can recall the information. The experimenter should read words and further distract the participant. The participant would then be put into a free recall group or cued recall group to determine how long this information can be stored for and which group would do better. Future research can also investigate if emotion helps the participant’s ability to recall information. Once again the participant would be put into a free recall or cued recall group. The words would be read with different expressions and emotions to determine which group recalls more words.
Kuhl, P. (2007). Is speech learning 'gated' by the social brain?. Developmental Science, 10(1), 110-120.
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In this paper the writer is going to present an overview of the field of neurolinguistics which is the study of the mental faculties involved in the perception, production, and acquisition of language. In other words, the neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language.
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When an individual acquires information it is processed into the memory system and must be manipulated into a form the system is capable of understanding in order for storage to take place. This information is then stored in the long term or episodic memory and is known as encoding (Baddeley, 1975). There are three ways in which information may be encoded; visual (imagery), acoustic (sound) and semantic (meaning) (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). Acoustic coding is suggested to be the main or principle coding system concerning short-term memory (STM). If someone were to be presented with a list stating various letters or numbers, the information will be held in the STM, which would occur through rehearsal. This is a verbal process irrespective of whether the items are represented acoustically (being read out), or visually (on a piece of paper). The dominant encoding system involved in the long-term memory (LTM) however, is suggested to be semantic coding (Baddeley, 1975). Information in the LTM may be encoded visually as well as acoustically.
The focus on the phonological mental memory was first initiated by Paul Meara (1980). He argued that the organization of words in memory depend on the phonological knowledge of the words in second language acquisition. However, in first language acquisition the memory depends on the semantic knowledge. Mear (1980) conducted a study on lexical performance in fir...