Whatcom County lies on the edge of a large Mediterranean climate zone that gives Bellingham and the surrounding areas the alluring temperature climate we all enjoy as residents. Warm, mild winters and hot dry summers coupled with high annual precipitation, anywhere from 75 cm near the coast to 580 cm in the mountains, has made the area a prime location for dense forests (Van Pelt, 2007). Prior to Euro- American settlement, all of western Washington was forested with the exception of about 10.3% which included land above the alpine timberline and non- forested prairies or wetlands. Of the 89.7% of forests, about 96% of them were coniferous (Van Pelt, 2007).
The main types of coniferous forests historically present in Whatcom were Western Hemlock, Pacific Silver fir, Mountain hemlock and alpine. The latter three were all primarily located in the North Cascades and with the rest of the county dominated by Western hemlock. Within Whatcom hemlock forests a mix of tree species including Pacific silver fir, Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, Noble fir and Western Red Cedar were present. Mature stands were characterized, and continue to be in old growth stands today, by clear understories and diverse vertical and horizontal canopy. More simply stated, trees grew to different heights which provided a greater number of habitat niches that could support a greater amount of biological diversity than is possible with monoculture stands. This type of forest composition is often referred to as the “climax community” and represents a stable set of species. However, no natural system is ever static and stands were maintained by natural disturbances like wind topple and wildfire. Wildfire in the Whatcom area was not always natural and often had a helping ...
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..., 1978, January 1st http://nwda.orbiscascade.org/ark:/80444/xv85165 (Accessed May 5, 2014)
(NARA) National Archives and Records Administration. "The 1906 San Francisco Earthquake and Fire." National Archives and Records Administration, (n.d.) http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/sf-earthquake-and-fire/ (accessed May 13, 2014).
Van Pelt, R. 2007. “Identifying Mature and Old Forests in Western Washington.” Washington State Department of Natural Resources, Olympia, WA.
“Coniferous Tree Species that are Dominant in Washington” n.d. Washington Forest Protection Association. http://www.wfpa.org/forest-policy/washington-forests/tree-species/
Wilma, D. “John Dolbeer invents the donkey engine and revolutionizes logging in August 1881.” History Link 2003, March 1st http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=5331 (accessed April 28, 2014)
Shortleaf pine tends to grow rather slowly in the early stages of its life when compared to its closest competitor, loblolly pine. Therefore it cannot compete for the best sites under natural regeneration, but, because of it's tolerance of a wide range of site conditions, shortleaf pine is found naturally in areas where loblolly pine will not grow effectively. It is for this reason that shortleaf pine was chosen for this site instead of loblolly. When planted artificially, it was found that after the first few years of development, shortleaf pine will match loblolly in height growth on the better sites and will surpass loblolly on the poorer sites (Harrington, 1987). Because of this, shortleaf pine is the most commonly regenerated pine in the northern and western parts of its range where the site conditions are not as ideal as in the southern part of its range.
Runkle, J. R. (1981). Gap regeneration in some old-growth forests of the eastern United States. Ecology, 62(4), 1041-1051.
These are very difficult questions for me personally to answer because I live in the Pacific Northwest, and I have seen the beauty of the old growth forests first-hand.
Zielinski, E. (2012, April 25). The Northwest Forest Plan. Retrieved from U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIORBUREAU OF LAND MANAGEMENT: http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/history/sidebars/ecosystems/Northwest_Forest_Plan.html
The ecological effects of wildfires on Yosemite are among some its greatest benefits. Trees like Bishop Pines and Sequoias have evolved in such a way that their seeds will only open when exposed to high temperatures. The fires also help to clear out dead leaves and weeds, thereby making sunlight accessible to new plants and increasing their chances to germinate (Marder). Wildfires are so essential in areas like Yosemite that over millions of years, plants have developed strategies to be successful in this type of environment. For instance, giant sequoias have developed a thick layer of fire-resistant bark. This bark is “the main explanation for tree survival in intense fires” (Gignoux, Colbert, and Menaut). Fire makes the soil fertile and redistributes the nutrients evenly so that the next generation of trees can cover more space. The fires have helped...
[1] “Mixedwood Plains.” Canadian Ecozones. Toronto: n.p., n.d. N. pag. TDSB Online Library School Sites. Web. 13 Dec. 2013. .
Fire plays a huge role in natural forests. The let it burn policy allows natural fires to burn unless, they threaten people, property, or endangered species. This policy allows the years and years of kindling that has fallen and piled up on the forest floor to burn up in smaller fires, instead of having huge devastating fire like the ones that burning for months in 1910 and 1988. When the west was first settled, forests were thinned by lumber companies that logged the trees and burned the logging debris, and by ranchers looking to increase pasture land. The last herder coming out of the mountains would set a fire to ensure good forage for the next year.
Cook Forest. (2013). Guide to the Common Trees of Pennsylvania. Retrieved April 15, 2014, from Cook Forest Online: http://www.cookforest.com/articles/trees/index.cfm
The Great Basin of North America and Wyoming specifically, is known for its arid and semi-arid environment, as well as prolonged and sometimes severe droughts. Drought is the prolonged and abnormal deficiency of moisture with the concomitant decline in runoff to a level significantly lower than usual (Guldin 1989). The history of droughts in Wyoming has been uncertain in the past, but recent studies of tree rings in the Big Horn Basin of Wyoming have given insight to droughts as far back as 1260A.D. (Gray et al. 2004). Looking at tree ring records in Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and limber pine (Pinus flexilis) trees, Stephen Gray and his colleagues discovered that droughts which have been experienced in Wyoming since the 1750's, are weak in severity and length when compared to those since. The most severe drought period in Wyoming’s history occurred from 1262 to 1281. The droughts of the 1930’s and 1950’s, which have been used as benchmarks for all other droughts in the United States in recent times (Woodhouse et al. 2002), are ranked 149th and 28th respectively in comparison (Gray et al. 2004). The five top ranking droughts for 10, 15, and 20 year periods are all prior to the 1800’s, with the four driest single years being 1263, 1274, 1278, and 1280 (Gray et al. 2004). This indicates a change in precipitation patterns in the Big Horn Basin area of Wyoming since the 18th century, as all recent droughts have been mild when compared to those of Wyoming’s past.
The plants growing among Montana’s peaks and valleys range from tall evergreen trees to grasses. The mountainous areas are covered with forests. However, at each level, from the mountaintops to the valleys, there are different, distinct collections of plant life. The mountainsides are largely covered with towering spruce, pine, cedar, and Douglas fir trees (Av2
"The Great San Francisco Earthquake & Fires of 1906." The 1906 San Francisco Earthquake. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 May 2014.
In the last decade, from the Rockies to New England and the Deep South, rural and suburban areas have been beset by white-tailed deer gnawing shrubbery and crops, spreading disease and causing hundreds of thousands of auto wrecks. But the deer problem has proved even more profound, biologists say. Fast-multiplying herds are altering the ecology of forests, stripping them of native vegetation and eliminating niches for other wildlife. ' 'I don 't want to paint deer as Eastern devils, ' ' said Dr. McShea, a wildlife biologist associated with the National Zoo in Washington, ' 'but this is indicative of what happens when an ecosystem is out of whack. ' ' The damage is worse than anyone expected, he and other scientists say. Higher deer densities have affected growth, survival, and reproduction of many plant species which have aesthetic, economic or ecological value. In some cases, many species of trees have also been shown to have reduced growth as a result of high deer density (Environmental Benefits of Hunting, 1). Deer prefer certain plant species over others and frequently feed on economically valuable tree species. For example, they prefer oak and sugar maple seedlings, as well as acorns, over less palatable species like American Beech and striped maple. Thus, less marketable species are more likely to survive to maturity,
The 1906 San Francisco earthquake was one of the largest earthquakes in the United States. Even though it only lasted less than a minute, the damages and aftermath of the earthquake were disastrous. These damages were not just from the earthquake, but also from other hazards that occurred because of it. It also had a huge effect on the people living in San Francisco. Many people, the government, and other countries helped the city of San Francisco with relief goods like food and clothing. The city used up their resources in order to rebuild the city and spent a lot of money. This earthquake also started a scientific revolution about earthquakes and its effects.
The controversy over logging, and more specifically clearcutting, is not a new issue in America. Ever since the 1920's and 1930's, when this nation started to become conscious of conservation, citizens have weighed the consequences of logging. Critics have questioned whether the increase in jobs, tax dollars, and economic growth was worth the destruction of forest lands. Regardless of what they believe today, the logging industry had become so efficient that by the late 1980's nearly 100,000 acres of federal land had been clearcut since the industry began. Logging technology has advanced rapidly in terms of speed, to meet the increasing demands for lumber, paper, and other products derived from trees. This in turn has greatly impacted the environment by severely degrading watersheds, leading to increased soil erosion, the diminution in the quality of drinking water, and the decline of fish stocks, among many other consequences. In this essay I will examine the progression of logging equipment throughout the 19th and 20th centuries and discuss how these changes in technology have not only changed the relationship of those who work in the industry, but also haw this has changed the wider relationship of society and nature.
Franklin, J. F., et al. (1981). In Ecological Characteristics of Old-Grow Douglas Fir Forest, (GTR PNW-118). Retrieved July 9, 2005, from USDA Forest Service Web Site: http://