Antimicrobial peptides (AMP), also known as host defense peptides (HDPs), exist extensively in all classes of life, contributing not only on immune responses mostly to bacterial infections, also modulating inflammatory response by regulating cytokine, chemotaxis, apoptosis and wound healing. Human HDPs have three major components, namely human α-, β-defensins (HADs and HBDs), and cathelicidin (LL-37). HDPs have a broad spectrum of activity against gram-positive and -negative bacteria, fungal species, and viruses [1-4]. HBDs are small cationic amphipathic peptides with a beta-sheet structure and a signature motif of six cysteines [5]. While LL-37 has its two consecutive leucine residues at the amino-terminal end and 37 amino acids, thus was named accordingly [6].
In addition to the ability of eliminating bacteria similar to antibiotics, HDPs can also naturalize endotoxin produced by gram-negative bacteria, thereby limiting the inflammatory reaction in host [7]. Moreover, with the difference of mechanisms comparing to antibiotics, HDPs will cause less toxicity toward host cells and have a low risk of microbial resistance [8]. HDPs can be induced by various factors. Rather than pathogens, some dietary resources such as fatty acids, histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, curcumin, vitamin D3, zinc, and disaccharides were reported to have HBD1 and LL37 induction activities, thereby boosting HDPs [3,9-11]. Those results capacitated the therapeutic possibility of HDPs-inducing drug and treatment.
Fatty acids are constructed by a chain of various amount of carbon atoms attached to hydrogen atoms. Fatty acids can be categorized into three groups based on the number of carbon atoms: short-fatty acids (SCFAs) ≤ C5, medium-chain fatty acids (...
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... had a higher induction effect on HBD1 than their counterpart at the same concentration (Figure 3). While on LL-37, 5-phenyl valeric acid (C5), 6-phenyl hexanoic acid (C6) and 7-phenyl heptanic acid (C7) had a higher response than their fatty acids, the peak expression observed at 5-phenyl valeric acid (C5) (Figure 3).
Effects of HDAC inhibitors on HBD1 and LL-37-inducing activities
Histone acetylation and deacetylation are two ways to modify histones on chromosomes, thereby regulating genetic expressions. Butyrate was reported as a non-competitive, reversible histone deacetylases (HDAC) inhibitor [19-21], additionally other HDAC inhibitors, such as sodium valproate, sulforaphane, apcidin etc., were examined as the genetic expression promoters [22-25]. In our study, we determined the effects on HBD1 and LL-37 expression induced by seven HDAC inhibitors (Figure 4).
Acid or base-catalyzed hydrolysis yields the component fatty acid, some examples of which are given in the following table, together with the alcohol component of the lipid. These long-chain carboxylic acids are generally referred to by their common names, which in most cases reflect their sources. Natural fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated, and as the following data indicate, the saturated acids have higher melting points than unsaturated acids of corresponding size. The double bonds in the unsaturated compounds listed on the right are all cis (or
Acetylation is mediated by histone acetyltransferases (HATs) which act as coactivators for transcription by interacting with the DNA-binding activators. Acetylation catalyzes the transfer of an acetyl group to the ε-amino group of the lysine residue with the utilization of the acetyl CoA as cofactor.Example: H3K56 acetylation by p300/CBP. HDACs have opposite effects to that of HATs, and remove the acetyl group from the lysine residues.
The bad fats are trans fatty acids. Trans fatty acids are created and are saturated fats meaning they have no carbon double bonds. Diets high in saturated fats increase the risk of heart disease. Foods to avoid would are beef, butter, and lard. The good fats are unsaturated fats. These are commonly called monosaturated fats, and polysaturated fats. Diets high in unsaturated fats are, “associated with a lower risk of heart disease” (p.137) Monosaturated fats can been found in avocados, olive and canola oil. Polysaturated fats such as linoleic and alpha-linolenic acid are essential fatty acids because the body is not able to produce them, as described, “they are needed for the formation of the phosopholipid that give cell membranes their structure and functional properties.”(p.138) Cholesterol is needed to, “synthesize other sterols, including vitamin d; bile acids, which are emulsifiers in bile; cortisol, which is a hormone that regulates our physiological response to stress; and testosterone and estrogen, which are hormones necessary reproduction.” (p.140) I am pleased to mention that I met all the requirements for fatty acids and
14. Erucic acid is a long-chain unsaturated fatty acid. Like oleic acid, it suppresses the creation of VLCFSAs, but is much more
Clavulanic acid is a powerful inhibitor of many beta-lactamase enzymes in penicillin-resistant organisms, it combines its action with the amoxicillin to enhance
For many years we have become increasingly dependant on antibiotics to fight off the bacteria that cause diseases in our bodies. Many of the diseases these bacteria and microbes cause are infectious. For these reasons, it has been noticed that bacteria and other microbes are becoming increasingly resistant to the antibiotics prescribed to sick people. Many doctors prescribe antibiotics for common illnesses, yet other medicines such as home remedies and homeopathy could be used instead. As a result, we are using antibiotics too often, as many sources claim we should only be using them once every three years.”Bacteria have shown a remarkable ability to endure and adapt to their environment including the development of different mechanisms of resistance to most old and new antimicrobial agents”. Because of the frequent prescription, the bacteria and microbes that cause these illnesses are exposed to the same type of antibiotics frequently, thus they are able to adapt and build up resilience against these antibiotics. “Bacteria have developed resistance to all different classes of antibiotics discovered to date” . This is a major problem as we rely so heavily on antibiotics to treat serious illnesses that we are running out of options to treat them with. The prescribing of antibiotics for illnesses that are not life-threatening are now resulting in fewer solutions to cure people affected by diseases that can be fatal.
Fats contain 3 fatty acids, each of which are connected to a single glycerol molecule through an ester linkage (a bond between carboxyl and hydroxyl). The resulting fat is triacylglycerol sometimes called triglyceride.
A USC researcher is interested in the roles of coregulators in steroid hormone regulation of transcription in cancer cells and would like to write a grant proposal on this topic. The two key coregulators of interests are Hic-5 and G9a. As he is preparing the proposal, he hopes to find information about the following questions:
They consist Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. Fats are composed of a glyceride and 3 fatty acids. It provides us with energy. It is stored as a source of energy (adipose tissue). It protects delicate organs and provides insulation. Fats can be classified as saturated, monosaturated and polyunsaturated. Saturated fats are culprit in heart disease and they increase cholesterol. Monosaturated are fats oils nuts and seeds. They have great health benefits. Polyunsaturated fats are oily fish and vegetable oils and they have been proven to reduce cholesterol. Essential fatty acids are a type of polyunsaturated fat. They cannot be made in the body. They have many health benefits e.g. blood clotting, inflammation and improves immunity. Fats are a source of energy and insulation. They can give the body shape and provide protection to vital
...eicosapentaenoic acid), and ALA (alpha-linolenic acid) are considered to be the three main fatty acids.
Li, L., Zhu, Z., Joshi, B., Porter, A.T. and Tang, D.G. (1999) A novel hydroxamic acid compound, BMD188, demonstrates anti-prostate cancer effects by inducing apoptosis. I: In vitro studies. AntiCancer Res., 19, 51-60.
Guanidines. The cyclic thiourea compound had greater inhibiting in the lung cancer cells compared to the bis-cyclic Guanidines. these compounds decreased the mRNA of PTHrp and hence decreased their transcription. The results showed that the decrease in the levels pf PHTrp was not due to cytotoxcicity on the cells , however due to a decrease in the promoter reporter concstruct specifically the P3 promoter .(19)
...the effects of manipulating the fatty acids in the stomach of the animals Fu et al (2003)3.
Fatty acids are another type of lipid. The common feature of fatty acids is that they are all esters of moderate to long chain fatty acids. Two polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic and linoleic, are designated "essential" because their absence in the human diet has been associated with health problems, such as scaly skin, stunted growth and increased dehydration. These acids are also precursors to the prostaglandins, a family of physiologically potent lipids present in minute amounts in most body tissues.
The animal fats and vegetable oils are esters of the alcohol, propane-1,2,3-triol (glycerol) CH2OHCHOHCH2OH and long chain carboxylic acids (often known as fatty acids) RCO2H, where the alkyl groups contain between 7 and 21 carbon atoms.”2 Saponification is the chemical reaction between fat and sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. Saponification comes from the Latin word, “sapo,” which means soap. The fats and oils come from animal or plant sources and is made up of distinctive mixture of several triglycerides. The fatty acids of a triglyceride are weak acids composed of a carboxyl acid group with one hydrogen atom, two oxygen atoms, and one carbon atom plus a hydrocarbon chain. The hydroxide is an alkali metal such as sodium or potassium. They are chemically a base that reacts or neutralizes an acid. During the saponification process, a triglyceride reacts with aqueous hydroxide ion to form a mixture of glycerol and fatty acid salts, or soap. This process is called alkaline hydrolysis of esters. Triglyceride plus sodium hydroxide equals glycerol plus three soap molecules. An exothermic reaction occurs when fats or oils come into contact with a strong base. Soap uses carboxylic acid such as sodium stearate which contains eighteen carbon atoms.