Bernhardt (1991) proposed an interactive model of reading arguing for five factors that influence reading comprehension: (i) fluent word recognition; (ii) familiarity with text structure; (iii) appropriately used background knowledge; (iv) syntactic awareness; and
(v) phonographemic features. Metacognitive reading strategies were also recognized as another important factor in Bernhardt's model. Devine (1988) states that to achieve language proficiency it is necessary to read and apply background knowledge and reading strategies. Such views may be associated with the final stage in ChaIt's (cited in
Adams, 1990) model where the reader comprehends material to a degree based on the need to achieve their goals in reading - the reader can analyze,
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Carell (1988) had a different observation, stating that the same type of readers might transfonn into knowledge-bound readers who overtly depend on background knowledge as a means to reimburse their minimal proficiency in language. Models argue that reading is composed of decoding and linguistic comprehension. The thesis, therefore, will continue with a review of some of these influential models.
Models of Reading and Reading Comprehension
A model can be defined as a representation that explores the functioning and interactions of the components of an object or action. Models may be images that visualize a phenomenon or, as many of the following would be considered, representations that help in understanding research and in explaining theories. Reading is a skill that starts from initiallbasic processes to higher levels or more sophisticated processes. The aim of a reading model should be to explain these different processes from basic word recognition to integrating and interacting systems that fonn meaning from text.
An approach to understanding how reading occurs arises from the realm of cognitive science. The methods of the cognitive scientist have focused on viewing the mind as
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In contrast, the second model discussed by Larson (2004) argued that reading is achieved by attending to each individual letter in a series from left to right. Gough's (1972) model fell into this perspective. As evidence, theorists often pointed to the work of
Sperling (1963), who argued for reading to increase by 10-20 milliseconds per letter, meaning that participants should recognize shorter words faster than longer words. This view was considered better than the word shape model, since shape should not be influenced by word length. However, the serial letter model also had problems, particularly explaining the Word Superiority Effect in which a letter could be identified more readily when presented in a word than in isolation under conditions of a brief exposure. This effect was less influenced by word length, suggesting that the reader can infer letters when presented in the context of a word rather than have to process each letter individually in series. This potential parallel processing of letters led to the third model discussed by Larson (2004). The parallel letter recognition model argued
Bartholomae, David, Petrosky Anthony. "Ways of Reading: An Anthology for Writers." University of Pittsburgh 7th Edition (1998): 467-81.
Lila is a second grade student who participated in a Primary Spelling Inventory and the reflection of her results are as follows. After her spelling inventory was finalized I noted that the student spelled ten of the twenty-six words correctly giving her a power score of 10/26. Most of the words that she mastered was in the Late emergent and early of Letter Name Alphabetic stage. I also noted that Lila accomplished 36 features out of 56 total features during her spelling inventory. Based on the results of the Primary Spelling Inventory the orthographic features that Lila recognizes are the consonants, short vowel, blends, and is familiar with diagraphs. Although she mastered blends which falls in the late Letter Name-Alphabetic stage she failed to master diagraphs which is the middle stage.
Last spring I was part of a tutor agency that provided activities to students from 1st – 6th grade. Such agency main purpose was to give students a set of mathematical problems or English pieces of reading in order for them to have an outstanding outcome on these two subjects at school. During my tutoring sessions I had a 4th grade student named Carolina who had a difficult time keeping focus, understanding the concept, and fully interested. She preferred texting in the middle of our session or making excuses to go to the restroom. I honestly felt helpless for her, and I didn’t know what to do and how to help her raise her grades. I realized that our tutoring sessions weren’t any help for Carolina since her mom showed me her grades which got worse. I finally decided to plan my tutoring session with her ahead of time, so I can make it interesting and more effective for her to learn but in a fun way. I choose to get different colorful cards, markers, and everything that could grave attention. When our session started I used those markers and cards to show her how to solve a mathematical problem by color coding every different step of the problem. Later, I asked her to show me the mathematical process she used in a similar problem by using those colorful cards and markers. Apparently, I make her use all these fun utensils that made the learning process more fun and effective. At the end of our session, I gave Carolina a quiz regarding the content we covered, and she did make a progress. I noticed that for Carolina the use of colors at every different step actually made her learn. Maybe it was due to the strategy that I showed her and the ability for her to remember those steps by associating them with each color which I was amazed an...
Sanchez, R. (March 19, 1998). A mixed approach to reading. Washington Post, Page A02, Retrieved February 26, 2004. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A99123-1998Mar19¬Found=true
Phonological awareness is the ability to be aware of the sounds certain letters in words make. Sue Bredekamp and Carrol Copple explain, “Another strong predicator of phonological awareness; that is, noticing the sounds of spoken language- beginning speech sounds and rhythms, rhyme and other sound similarities, and, at the highest level, syllables and phonemes (the smallest units of speech that make a difference in communication)” (Bredekamp & Copple, 2009, p. 147). An example of something I can use in the classroom will follow standard LAFS.K.RF.2.2 Demonstrate understanding of spoken words, syllables, and sounds (phonemes). a. Recognize and produce rhyming words. By teaching children to listen to the ending sounds of a word, I can use a felt board to hang up pictures of a cat, bat, rat, hat, mat, and images showing pat, sat, and splat. I will ask the class to listen for ending sounds and find the similarities. I can assess them by adding pictures of a dog, chair, fan, and pen on the mat and see if they can match the rhyming words and omit the non-rhyming
One method that was discussed in the article that teacher use in their classroom is the letters of the –week approach. “Teacher provides children with practice in recognizing, forming and making the sound correspondence of a single letter thought out the week.” ( ) Research have shown the only problem with this is that some letter student will already know and wouldn’t need so much practice unlike other letter they might need a longer time to learn them. Usually letter that involves their first name they would recognize right away. Other letters that students don’t usually use it will be harder for them to recogn...
In the partial alphabetic phase individuals pay attention to different letters in a word in order to attempt its pronunciation, usually the first and final letters of a word are focused on, Ehri referred to this as ‘phonetic cue reading’. This is a skill which along with others which shows phonological awareness.
Phonemic Awareness and Alphabetic Principle in addition to Phonics and Decoding Skills provide students with early skills of understanding letters and words in order to build their reading and writing skills. Students will need to recognize how letters make a sound in order to form a word. While each word has a different meaning to be to format sentences. While reading strategies for Reading Assessment and Instruction, I was able to find three strategies for Phonemic Awareness and three strategies for Alphabetic Principles which will provide advantage for the student in my research and classroom settings.
Close reading, according to the author, has five key components to look for; word choice, repetition,
Eliminating nonessential elements, the minimized letterforms weaken the identification to recognize some of the letters: the lowercase ‘a’ and ‘g’ with single-counter are less legible than the two-counter letters; the letter ‘b’, ‘d’, ‘p’ and ‘q’ are considered to be just mirrored or rotated
In this paper, I will analyze reading strategies for the content area of language arts in a fifth grade class. Reading comprehension is one of the most critical skills a student can master. Without a firm grasp on the comprehension process, learners will struggle in every subject they encounter, whether it’s science, math, or social studies as well as everyday living skills. The content areas typically included disciplines like science, social studies/history and math, but any area outside of English literature instruction constitutes a content area. The reading associated with content area courses reflects not only the concepts and ideas important to these subjects, but also the text structures used by those practicing the field.
5. Hayes, R.B., Three Approaches to Beginning Reading, the Reading Teacher, 1976, v. 20, p. 694
Acronyms are words whose letters represent individual components (e.g., ROY G. BIV representing the arrangement of colors in the rainbow, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet). Acrostics are sentences whose first letters represent the information to be recalled (e.g., “Every good boy does fine” representing the names of musical notes on the lines of the treble clef - E,G,B,D,and F). Elaborations can be used to highlight an important feature of a word, such as a tricky spelling (e.g., differentiating the spellings of the words “principle” and “principal” by depicting a school principal as a "pal”). Special instances of mnemonic strategies can and have been developed for specific uses. Such is the case in linking letters of the alphabet with their phonetic sounds (e.g., an “S” drawn as a snake which makes the /s/ sound). Linking letters and sounds seems to be the most prominent mnemonic strategy used with young children. Several researchers have explored this possibility (Scruggs &
comprehension instruction: A comparison of instruction for strategies and content approaches ―[Electronic version]. Reading Research Quarterly, 44(3), 218–253.
Just, M.A., & Carpenter, P.A. (2010). The psychology of reading and language comprehension. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.