INTRODUCTION Enzymes are protein-based catalysts of biological systems that each play a specific and efficient role in the field of biochemistry (Damji, 2007). Catalysts are substances that act to increase the rate of chemical reactions, whilst still maintaining their chemical structures (Damji, 2007). Enzymes do this by lowering the activation energy (the minimum amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to occur) of the substrate molecules without affecting the equilibrium point of the reaction to form the product (P) faster (Howard, 2003). This interaction is known as the enzyme-substrate complex, where weak, non-covalent interactions (through hydrogen-bonding and Van Der Waals interactions) at the active site of the enzyme are orientated in a favorable position, to facilitate the formation of the substrate to the product (P) form. Pyrophosphatase is an enzyme found in all tissues within the human body (Ashby 2014). The hydrolysis of pyrophosphate plays a pivotal role in the metabolism of lipids, in terms of lipid synthesis and degradation, absorption of calcium and bon...
Lipid metabolism is one source of energy for the human body. We eat food containing one form of lipids, triacylglycerols. Before starting lipid metyabolism, these fats get broken down into droplets by bile salts.Triacylglycerols can be broken into fatty acids plus glycerol via hydrolysis with the help of the pancreatic lipase enzymen and then get used by cells for energy by breaking down even further. Once the pancreas and cells have enough energy and don’t need to absorb anymore, fatty acids get synthesized back into triacylgleryols. The excess triacylglycerols get stored in adipose tissue. Excess storage leads to weight gain and obesity.
Background information:. Enzyme Enzymes are protein molecules that act as the biological catalysts. A Catalyst is a molecule which can speed up chemical reactions but remains unchanged at the end of the reaction. Enzymes catalyze most of the metabolic reactions that take place within a living organism. They speed up the metabolic reactions by lowering the amount of energy.
Enzymes are biological catalysts - catalysts are substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without being altered itself. Enzymes are also proteins that fold into complex shapes that allow smaller molecules to fit into them. The place where these substrate molecules fit is called the active site. The active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction. The active site consists of residues that form temporary bonds with the substrate and residues that catalyse a reaction of that substrate. (Clark, 2016)
High oxidative a stress is known to cause global cellular damage by creating reactive oxygen species (ROS) which causes damage to proteins, lipids and DNA (15, 82). Oxidative stress increases protein phosphorylation, causing changes to signaling pathways. For example, several phosphatases involved in cancer, apoptosis and aging are inactivated under conditions of high oxidative stress (26). ROS is a known contributor to several diseases including Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, kidney disease, and T2DM (25, 27, 105). Known mediators of oxidative stress include transition metals and mitochondrial dysfunction (15, 27). In this project, I will be studying how cellular iron regulation causes an increase in oxidative stress, contributing to cellular damage and disease. Aconitase is an important mediator of oxidative stress, metabolism and iron regulation.
An enzyme is a catalysis and catalysis s substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself going through a permanent chemical change. In this lab we will discover exactly how the substrate connects with the active site. The main substance we use throughout this lab is peroxidase a eukaryotic organelle from plant tissues. Once there is a color change we test that using a spectrophotometer. Introduction
Enzymes have the ability to act on a small group of chemically similar substances. Enzymes are very specific, in the sense that each enzyme is limited to interact with only one set of reactants; the reactants are referred to as substrates. Substrates of an enzyme are the chemicals altered by enzyme-catalysed reactions. The extreme specific nature of enzymes are because of the complicated three-dimensional shape, which is due to the particular way the amino acid chain of proteins folds.
The enzymes have active sites on their surfaces to allow the binding of a substrate through the help of coenzymes to form enzyme-substrate complex. The chemical reaction thus converts the substrate to a new product then released and the catalytic cycle proceeds.
Enzymes in general are very interesting to learn from and are fundamental in carrying out processes in various organisms. Enzymes are proteins that control the speed of reactions, they help quicken the rate of the reaction and also help cells to communicate with each other. There are 3 main groups of enzymes, first are the metabolic enzymes that control breathing, thinking, talking, moving, and immunity. Next are the digestive enzymes that digest food and normally end with –ase, there are 22 known digestive enzymes and examples of these are Amylase, Protease, and Lipase. The final group are the Food or plant enzymes which is what my enzyme that I’m studying falls under. Papain gets its name because it comes from papaya fruit, its main purpose is to break down proteins and break peptide bonds however it is not only used in the Papaya fruit and has many external uses. It was also very helpful in the 1950s when scientists were trying to understand enzymes. It also helps us to this day understand Protein structural studies and peptide mapping. Without enzymes, reactions in the body would not happen fast enough and would tarnish our way of life which is why it is vital that we study and learn from them.
The Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Enzymes in Medicine and Industry What is an enzyme? = == ==
In this lab, it was determined how the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction is affected by physical factors such as enzyme concentration, temperature, and substrate concentration affect. The question of what factors influence enzyme activity can be answered by the results of peroxidase activity and its relation to temperature and whether or not hydroxylamine causes a reaction change with enzyme activity. An enzyme is a protein produced by a living organism that serves as a biological catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction and does so by lowering the activation energy of a reaction. With that energy reactants are brought together so that products can be formed.
Jim Clark. (2007). The effect of changing conditions in enzyme catalysis. Retrieved on March 6, 2001, from http://www.chemguide.co.uk/organicprops/aminoacids/enzymes2.html
Enzymes are essential biological catalysts in the human body that biochemical reaction. Catalysts work by lowering the activation energy, the minimum energy required for a reaction to occur, which increases the rate of the reaction (Burdge, 2014). Enzymes catalyze reactions by applying pressure onto the bonds of the substrate which lowers the activation energy and breaks these bonds to form products. Even though some enzymes have been found to be non-proteins, most of them are globular proteins which possess an active site where the substrate attaches itself (Raven, 114). The two models that describe the manner in which substrates attach to enzymes are the lock-and-key model and the induced fit model. The lock-and-key model is used to explain an enzyme that fits to only one type of substrate. It is like a lock and key in the sense that only one lock can fit into a key, therefore, only one substrate can fit into the active site of an enzyme that follows this model. On the other hand, an enzyme that follows the induced fit model slightly changes its shape in order for the substrate to...
Enzymes are protein molecules that are made by organisms to catalyze reactions. Typically, enzymes speeds up the rate of the reaction within cells. Enzymes are primarily important to living organisms because it helps with metabolism and the digestive system. For example, enzymes can break larger molecules into smaller molecules to help the body absorb the smaller pieces faster. In addition, some enzyme molecules bind molecules together. However, the initial purpose of the enzyme is to speed up reactions for a certain reason because they are “highly selective catalysts” (Castro J. 2014). In other words, an enzyme is a catalyst, which is a substance that increases the rate of a reaction without undergoing changes. Moreover, enzymes work with
Investigating a Factor that Affects Enzyme Activity Planning -------- Aim --- To investigate a factor which will affect the activity of catalase, whilst keeping all variables constant. Possible Independent Variables ------------------------------ Here are a number of possible independent variables that could be changed in the experiment: Independent variable Continuous/Discontinuous Easy to measure?
Pyrrole has been a molecule of great interest due to its heterocyclic aromatic properties. The lone pair on the nitrogen is delocalised within the ring, causing the heterocycle to be electron-rich . This causes the ring to become increasingly nucleophilic, and therefore makes it susceptible to attack from electrophiles . The addition of these new substitutions makes more important molecules , which have a huge contribution to not only the chemical industry, but also the biological. 1 Substituted pyrrole molecules are fantastic precursors to make complex molecules, such as medicines, agrochemicals and dyes. Indole, an important benzo-pyrrole, is the basis of the important protein, tryptophan and has functions as a neurotransmitter in the brain. The neurotransmitter, serotonin, is important in making modern drugs such as sumatriptan which treats migraines.2