Many bacteria and fungi are known to spend either part of their life or their full life inside the plants. They are called endophytes. Endophytes live in mutualism with the plants and depend fully on the plants. Endophytes are not present on the surface of the plants so they can be isolated by surface sterilization of the plants. They are known to affect the plant directly or indirectly. There is not a single plant found till date that does not harbor these endophytes. Endophytes either can gain entry through wounds or injury in the plants or they can enter the plant tissues by producing various enzymes like cellulase. Plant pathogens also behave in the same way but endophytes are not recognized as pathogen because when they enter plants, the plants do not induce any hypersensitive reaction which occurs when pathogen gain entry in the plants (Hallmann et al., 1997). Endophytes present in recalcitrant plants is the major area of study these days because they harbor endophytes that offer more benefits than other endophytes present in non recalcitrant species like production of various bioactive compounds. Recalcitrant plants are those plants that do not produce viable seed or even if they produce, the seeds are unable to germinate and the seeds are desiccation sensitive. They maintain the high water content during maturation so the desiccation seeds survive under this high moisture content environment. Another characteristic of recalcitrant plants is that their seed are generally of large sizes that do not dry at final stage of seed development. Castanospermum austral, Trichilia dregeana, Litchi chinesis, Artocarpus lakoocha and Mangifera indica are some examples of recalcitrant plants (Filho., 2000).
1.1 Impact on plant’s l...
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...inin which is known to be an antimalarial drug. Colletotrichum which is present as endophyte present in Aertemisia annua produces certain metabolites that act as fungistatic for certain human pathogenic fungus and hence can be explored for treatment of fungus related diseases (Guo et al., 2008).
1.6 Negative effects:
Endophytes may also be the cause of certain diseases in the plants. Endophytes also produce certain secondary metabolites like Peramine, Lolitrem B, Ergovaline, Paxilline and many others. Alkaloid posions present problems in forage grasses. Litchi is mainly affected by the endophytes Colletotrichum and Phomopsis. The C. acutatum species is also destructive on fruits like strawberry, citrus, apple, olive, cranberry and blueberry. Anthracnose of papaya is also caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioide which is an endophyte (Slippers et al., 2005).
Character Analysis of Elisa Allen in "The Chrysanthemum" by John Steinbeck. "The Chrysanthemums," written by John Steinbeck, captures one day in the life of a woman who yearns for a more fulfilling life. Elisa is first portrayed as a woman whose tasks are exceeded by her abilities. As the day continues, a stranger briefly enters her life and, through manipulative words, fills her heart with hopes of change and excitement. We learn that these newly-found hopes are crushed when Elisa eventually realizes that she has been used.
Thomas R. Warne, Leslie G. Hickok and Rodney J. Scott. (1988). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. Characterization and genetic analysis of antheridiogen-insensitive mutants in the fern Ceratopteris. 96 (1), 371-379.
The Effect of Light on the Organic Plant Elodea Aim: To calculate the rate of photosynthesis from the number of oxygen bubbles produced by the plant. Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants use the sun's energy to build up carbohydrate reserves. Plants make their own organic food such as starch. Plants need Carbon dioxide, water, light and chlorophyll in order to make food; and starch and oxygen are produced. Carbon dioxide and water are the raw materials of photosynthesis.
The basis for the symbiotic relationship in these species is complex. The infection of the host cell by rhizobia occurs within the plant’s root nodules. Bacteroides, gram-negative anaerobic bacteria, are isolated from the host cell by a peribacteroid membrane; the membrane between the plasma membrane of the cell and the membrane of the bacteroid. The bacteroid contains differentiated rhizobia, which are able to fix nitrogen due to the supply of carbon from the host plant. Sucrose is delivered to the nodules of the root via the phloem, where it is cleaved by suc synthase, and enters the Krebs cycle. The product of glyco...
The short story "The Chrysanthemums" gives insight into the life of its author. John Steinbeck was born on February 27, 1902, in Salinas, California. The locale of the story is of key resemblance to the Salinas in which Steinbeck was born and bread. "Salinas was a typical American small town, [differing] only in location and a few distinctive features" (McCarthy 3). The protagonist of this story, Elisa Allen, also resembles Steinbeck's first wife. "Steinbeck probably based the character of Elisa Allen on his own first wife, Carol Henning Steinbeck. Like Elisa, Carol was a woman of considerable talent and energy who wore 'masculine clothes' and was 'strong, large-boned' and 'handsome rather than pretty'" (Hughes 23). Similar to the time frame in which Steinbeck lived, the theme of the story comes across as being male dominant and the rustic setting allows us to visualize this.
The Effect of Light Intensity on Photosynthesis Of Elodea Canadensis Introduction I wanted to find out how much the light intensity affected the Photosynthesis in Elodea Camadensa. I decided to do this by measuring the amount of oxygen created during photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the procedure all plants go through to make food. This process uses Carbon dioxide, water and light energy. It produces Oxygen and Glucose.
Schumann, Gail L., and Cleora J. D'Arcy. Hungry Planet: Stories of Plant Diseases. St. Paul: American Phytopathological Society, 2012. Print.
The another devastating abiotic stress which is considered to be highly responsible worldwide for decreasing yield and quality of crop productivity is drought (Lambers et al. 2008 ; Moghadam et al .,2011; Mohsen Pourgholam et al.,2013 ; M. Farooq et al., 2012; Abolhasani and Saeidi, 2004 ; Monjezi et al., 2013).It harms plant growth and development and reduces crop growth rate and also affects biomass accumulation. Generally, in crop plants drought severely affects the cell division and expansion, elongation of root, leaf size, proliferation of root and inhibition of shoot growth (Sharp & Davies 1989; Spollen et al.,1993;Yamaguchi et al.,2010). Furthermore ,it also badly hampers all kinds of plant functions and physiological and biochemical traits such as mineral elements, carbohydrates, free radicals, ions, hormones, lipids, and nucleic acids (HongBo et al., 2005; Yasar et al., ; Moghadam et al .,2011,Mohsen Pourgholam et al,2013) .The transportation of nutrients from the roots to the stem severely get affected by drought as the rate of transpiration is reduced and damage of active transport and membrane permeability take place (Viets, 1972; Alam, 1999; Yasar et al ). Simultaneously, due to decrease in soil moisture, problem occurs with the low distribution of absorbed nutrients by the plant roots in the soil (Alam, 1999; Yasar et al ). More importantly, drought leads to rise in generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) due to energy accumulation in stress condition of plants (Smirnoff 1993; Asada 2006; Waraich et al.,2011).Drought diminishes photosynthetic carbon fixation primarily through restraining the entrance of CO2 into the leaf or by reducing metabolism (Smirnoff 1993; Loggini et al., 1999; Ap...
Homeostasis, what is it? Homeostasis is the balance between systems to keep living organisms alive and healthy. For an organism to maintain homeostasis its body systems must react and respond to changes in both its internal and external environments. Majority of body systems in organisms, like a respiratory or circulatory system in animals, are part of their internal environment. One body system that is very important for maintaining homeostasis and is common among many organisms is a respiratory system. The respiratory system is responsible for disposing of carbon dioxide and in taking oxygen (vice versa for plants). Some parts that make up a respiratory system are the lungs, windpipe, and cilia in animals. Another body system important to homeostasis and common among animals is a circulatory system, used for bringing nutrients like glucose and oxygen to body cells. Some parts that make up a circulatory system are a heart, blood, and tubes for the blood to travel through (veins, arteries, and capillaries) in animals. There are many more body systems important to homeostasis, but if one is disrupted it’s vital for it to be restored to normal.
Plant defences are those mechanisms employed by plants in response to herbivory and parasitism. According to Hanley et al. (2007), “the tissues of virtually all terrestrial, freshwater, and marine plants have qualities that to some degree reduce herbivory, including low nitrogen concentration, low moisture content, toxins or digestibility-reducing compounds”. The type of chemical defence may be species specific (Scott 2008). The defences that plants possess may be in the form of chemical production or in the form of physical defences such as thorns or spikes and even through reinforced, rigid leaves. “The compounds that are produced in response to herbivory can either have a direct effect on the attacker itself (e.g. toxins or digestibility reducers), or serve as indirect defenses by attracting the natural enemies of the herbivores” (Bezemer & van Dam 2005). This essay will focus on chemical plant defences and in particular the effects of terpenes, phenolics, nitrogen-based defences as well as allelopathy in plants.
The plants that we know today as terrestrial organisms were not always on land. The land plants of today can be linked back to aquatic organisms that existed millions of years ago. In fact, early fossil evidence shows that the earliest land plants could have arisen some 450 million years ago (Weng & Chappie 2010). Plants that used to reside strictly in water were able to adapt in ways that allowed them to move onto land. It is speculated the need for plants to move onto land was created by water drying up, causing plants to have less room and pushing them to move onto land. Although the exact cause of plant’s need to move to a terrestrial environment is unclear, it is known that plants had to undergo several adaptations to be able to live on land. These adaptations include: lignin, cellulose, suberin, and changes to plant’s surface, including the formation of a waxy cuticle.
Fungi are eukaryotic organisms which are either single-celled or multi-cellular organisms, their DNA containing chromosomes are enclosed in a Nucleus inside their cells. Fungi cell structure is very similar to that of the plants however, Fungi do not perform photosynthesis. Fungi is often known to be a nuisance when found within a person’s house, whether on food, the walls or even the floor. People naturally find it disturbing and dirty, however there are good types of Fungi, often referred to as friendly fungi. In 1928 Penicillin, one of the most famous of antibiotic drugs was discovered having derived it from the fungi called Penicillium. This discovery has since has a huge impact on helping people across the globe. However, not all is it seems, there are some nasty fungi that can cause diseases in plants, animals and people. A famous one being Phytophthora infestans. This ...
Things like that could cause a plant severe stress and just like humans, plants don't function well under stress.
...icot stem. Label and sketch its parts. Take note of the position of the vascular bundle.
An Experiment to Investigate Osmosis in Plant Tissue. Aim: To conduct an investigation to compare the osmotic behavior of the osmotic animal. two types of plant tissue in varying concentrations of sucrose. solution. Then we can find the solution.