Although many people believe that the only way to confidently make causal inferences in the psychology world is through true experiments, I believe that observational and other quasi experiments can be just as effective for making cause and effect conclusions. One of the cardinal rules in psychology, of course, is that correlation does not equal causation. While this is true, I strongly believe that when certain conditions are met, we can infer causation even with nonexperimental data. I have learned about many of these conditions in my Advanced Research Methods textbook and completely agree with the author’s opinion on this topic. Basically, causality has a probabilistic meaning rather than a deterministic one. When making causality inferences, we are not saying that one variable directly, immediately, or always results in one particular outcome, but instead, that “this variable increases the probability of this outcome” such that there is more than just a correlational relationship at play (Keith Chapter 1). This concept applies to both quasi and true experiments so long as certain assumptions are met. Though the list of these assumptions is detailed, a few I find most helpful are:
1.) The experiment (quasi or true) is based on previous literature, relevant findings, sophisticated theory, and carefully chosen variables that researchers have reason to believe effect the outcome of interest (Keith Chapter 9).
2.) Time precedence / logic – if we can establish that the “causal” variable occurs before the “effect” variable, it makes causal inferences easier; if we believe that A causes B, it should be much more difficult to think of B causing A.
3.) Obviously, the easier it is to imagine a third variable influencing the outcome of ...
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... of education and expertise. Are people who take up these careers doing so because they love the excitement or because they have a high need for cognition / interest in education? (here, individual differences in a few different personality traits could be source of this correlation; we can not be sure it is only individual differences in sensation seeking.
2.) An individual being interested in things like extreme sports, sky diving, or gambling provides us with no worthy reason to believe that that individual would, for some reason, become interested in the fields of psychology, nursing, etc. The variables (sensation-seeking and profession) might be correlated, but there is no rhyme or reason to believe there must be a relation between the two such that one causes the other; if two variables are unrelated then they are also causally unrelated (Keith Chapter 9).
Experimental research is the one type of research that allows psychologists to make causal statements. It is where the researcher changes one or more variables that may have an effect on some other variables (King, 2016). The hypothesis is a specific expectation about what is going to happen in the experiment (King, 2016). In the research, the hypothesis was that women would perceive fat talk to be more socially acceptable than men (Katrevich et al., 2014). The other elements of experimental method are dependent and independent variables. The independent variable (IV) is the cause of the results, and it is changed by the experimenter to find the effects, but the dependent vari...
...for women, generally. Experiments are the only means by which cause and effect can be established. Thus it could be demonstrated that the model did have an effect on the child’s subsequent behavior, because all variables other than the independent variable are controlled (Diessner, 2008).
The study is usually described as an experiment with the independent variable being, the condition the participants are ...
According to Jimenez-Buedo (2011), it is difficult to make a valid reference that there is a causal relationship when conducting an experiment in a laboratory-style setting. Jimenez-Buedo (2011) also states that both internal and external validity are being inferred without adequate evidence to support the claims being made in many cases. Jimenez-Buedo (2011) also states that generalization of results in the case of external validity should not be taken lightly. In other words, it appears that she feels that neither internal nor external validity should be inferred in many cases associated with experiments that are done in a laboratory setting versus the real world. This appears to mean that in all circumstances Jimenez-Buedo (2011) favors conducting experiments that are as representative as possible of the real world in order to be able to validate the results and in order to infer a causal or generalizable relationship.
Choosing a vocation can be a daunting task. With the world ever-evolving, one may come across a new attractive career every year. In order to ensure optimal job satisfaction, it is vital to educate oneself about every alluring prospect prior to committing. Simple factors like the time commitment and salary can mean the difference between a content existence and a miserable one.
Going into details of the article, I realized that the necessary information needed to evaluate the experimental procedures were not included. However, when conducting an experiment, the independent and dependent variable are to be studied before giving a final conclusion.
Application of career theories to my own life allows for analyzing past and future career decisions. Holland’s Theory of Careers states that one’s vocation is an expression of self, personality, and way of life. There is an indisputable and fundamental difference in the quality of life one experiences if they choose a career one truly enjoys, versus choosing a career one detests. A true testament to the validity of Holland’s theory, my job/career choices reflect my interests, as well as the evolution of my personality (internal self). My first job as a fine jewelry specialist and second job as a make-up artist echo my love of the fashion world. As I matured and became less fascinated by presumed “glamour” careers, I became captivated by physical fitness, nutrition, and medicine; I received my national fitness trainer certificate so that I may become a personal trainer. Nevertheless, my career decisions do not fit uniformly into merely one career theory.
order of influence an environment has on someone is from furthest to closest (1979). With that in
The measure of the dependent variable is a significant element in experimental and quasi-experimental designs and allows for comparison of groups. Both designs can show probability of cause and effect relationships, which is important in research (Writing @ CSU, 2010).
My paper is based on an article from the text’s web site (chapter 9) entitled “Lack of sleep ages body’s systems.” The basic claim of the article is that sleep deprivation has various harmful effects on the body. The reported effects include decreased ability to metabolize glucose (similar to what occurs in diabetes) and increased levels of cortisol (a stress hormone involved in memory and regulation of blood sugar levels). The article also briefly alludes (in the quote at the bottom of page 1) to unspecified changes in brain and immune functioning with sleep deprivation.
In this ordered domain, the relationships between cause and effect exist but separated in time and space and not fully understood. Complicated context contains multiple answers. Rese...
According to Holland (1985), the choice of a career is an extension of one’s personality into the world of work. Individuals choose careers that satisfy their preferred personal orientations. Holland developed six modal personal styles and six matching work envi¬ronments: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enter¬prising, and conventional. A person is attracted to the particular role demand of an occupational environ-ment that meets his or her needs. For example, some¬one who is socially oriented would seek out a work environment that provides interactions with others, such as nursing in a hospital setting. Holland and his colleagues have developed a number of instruments (e.g., the Self-Directed Search) designed to assist in identifying individual personality traits and matching those traits to occupational groups. Holland’s theory assesses each individual in terms of two or three most prominent personality types and matching each type with the environmental aspects of potential careers. It is predicted that the better the match, the better the congruence, satisfaction, and persistence (Holland, 1985). Holland also elaborated five secondary assumptions which he calls key concepts that describe the theory. These assumptions
Lowman, Rodney L. (1991). The Clinical Practice of Career Assessment: Interest, Abilities, and Personalities (1st ed.). Washington: American Psychological Association.
The first method to be discussed and analysed are experimental methods. There is a variety of experimental methods including; laboratory, field and natural experiments. These methods are the most scientific method due to them being highly objective and systematic. In addition, this method is regarded as the most powerful research method used in psychology because of the potential to investigate the causes of events and therefore, identifying the cause and effect relationship. When carrying out an experiment the researcher intervenes directly in the situation being investigated. The researcher manipulates an independent variable (IV) in order to investigate whether there is a change in the dependent variable (DV). Any other variables that could have an
Choosing a career is very important in a person’s life. Over the past two decades, many professions have change significantly with the influx of technological developments. One needs to think about the things that interest them and what kind of lifestyle they want to have. Some things a person should think about are what qualifications are needed, what type of training is necessary, and the future need of the career they choose. Some other things to consider would be how much money they will make, what is the probability of advancement, and does the career satisfy their need for an enjoyable life.